-NRLF 


SB    Z53    037 


MANUAL   LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


MANUAL 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


PREPARED   BY 


WILLIAM  F.  ALLEN,  A.M., 

PROFESSOR     OF     ANCIENT     LANGUAGES     AND     HISTORY     IN     THE 
UNIVERSITY     OF     WISCONSIN ; 


JOSEPH  H.  ALLEN, 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED     BY     EDWIN     GINN. 
WOOLWORTH,   AINSWORTH,   &    CO. 

1868. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 

J.  H.  AND  W.  F.  ALLEN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


CAMBRIDGE: 
PRESS  OP  JOHN  WILSON  AND  SON. 


AS"3 


[From  President  HILL,  of  Harvard  University.] 

CAMBRIDGE,  Aug.  7,  1868. 
Rev.  JOSEPH  H.  ALLEN. 

DEAR  SIR,  —  Of  the  details  of  your  "Latin  Grammar,"  I  am 
not  a  competent  judge ;  but  the  general  plan  and  general  execu- 
tion I  feel  free  to  commend  very  warmly.  The  book  seems  to  me 
to  contain  all  that  is  necessary  for  those  who  do  not  pursue  Latin 
beyond  their  Freshman  year ;  and  to  contain  it  in  so  brief  a  form, 
as  to  give  reasonable  hope  that  a  boy  may  become  familiar  with  it 
without  either  overstraining  his  memory,  or  becoming  disgusted 
with  the  quantity  imposed  on  him.  It  is  a  great  error  to  expand 
a  text-book  beyond  the  dimensions  necessary  for  a  clear  statement 
of  the  subject.  Very  respectfully  yours, 

THOMAS   HILL. 


AN  introductory  book  of  exercises,  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  the  grammar  is  in  preparation,  and 
may  be  expected  within  a  year.  At  present,  instruc- 
tors who  may  adopt  this  manual  for  beginners,  are 
advised  to  use  the  Latin  Reader,  adapting  references 
to  tins  grammar,  as  any  skilful  teacher  can  easily  do. 

The  following  corrections  required -to  be  made  in 
early  copies  of  this  book : 

Page  11,  line  12,  for  io  read  is. 
Page  75,  line  16,  for  40  read  42. 


PREFACE. 


MANY  of  the  best  friends  of  classical  education  have 
long  desired  a  manual  of  elementary  instruction  in 
Latin  grammar,  —  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  a 
classical  course,  —  full  and  accurate  enough  to  be 
a  practical  guide  to  the  learner,  but  avoiding  the 
prodigious  multiplication  of  details,  which  have  so 
overgrown  that  study  in  our  ordinary  school  text- 
books. 

In   attempting  to   meet  this  want,  we  have  been 
guided  by  the  following  principles  :  — 

1.  To  admit  only  what  is  likely  to  be  really  useful 
information  to  the  learner,  and  nothing  which  he  will 
be  likely  to  look  for  in  the  dictionary  first. 

2.  To  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  all  subtil  ties  of  theory 
and  technicalities  of  phrase ;   and  to  illustrate  every 
point,  as  it  is  stated,  by  examples  in  correct  Latin,  uni- 
formly rendered  into  the  corresponding  English  idiom. 

3.  To  aid  the  eye,  by  the  typography  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  page,  so  as  to  make  it  an  easy  manual  of 
reference.     Every  Latin  word  we  have  used  is  printed 


Vlii  PREFACE. 

in  a  special  type,  cast  expressly  for  this  book,  and  is 
followed  immediately  (except  in  the  section  on  Pros- 
ody), by  its  English  equivalent,  italicized.  The  quan- 
tities of  roots  and  inflections  are  abundantly  given 
throughout.  In  orthography,  we  have  followed  the 
most  approved  editions  of  the  present  day,  adopting  a 
few  forms  which  may  possibly  be  regarded  as  innova- 
tions, but  varying  less  than  some  might  desire  from 
the  past  usage  of  our  text-books. 

In  the  classification  and  arrangement  of  paradigms 
we  have  expended  a  great  deal  of  care.  The  classifi- 
cation of  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension,  —  which  is 
based  partly  on  that  of  Key,  —  seems  to  us  to  have 
great  advantages  over  that  commonly  adopted.  The 
exhibition  of  the  Verb-forms  will  be  found  not  only  a 
material  help  to  the  learner  by  its  compactness,  clear- 
ness, and  easiness  of  reference ;  but  to  have  the  spe- 
cial benefit  of  keeping  distinctly  in  view  the  point 
(which  teachers  so  often  fail  to  make  familiar)  that 
all  irregularities,  or  peculiarities  of  conjugation,  are 
confined  to  the  forms  from  the  first  or  Present  stem, 
while  the  others  follow  one  uniform  model  through- 
out. 

This  volume  is  not,  in  any  sense,  an  abridgment  or 
compilation  from  previous  writers.  Except  in  some 
details  of  Prosody,  we  have  not  been  directly  indebted 
to  any  of  those  in  use  in  our  schools.  Our  plan  has 
grown  from  our  own  wants  and  experience;  and  the 
examples  have  been  selected,  in  general,  from  our 


PREFACE.  ix 

own  reading.  Only  in  a  few  instances,  where  it 
seemed  desirable  for  completeness,  we  have  not  hesita- 
ted to  borrow  them  from  other  sources. 

While  we  have  omitted  a  great  amount  of  matter 
which  we  think  serves  in  many  text-books  merely  to 
obscure  to  the  learner  the  outlines  of  the  language,  it 
will  be  found  that  its  leading  forms  and  usages  are 
very  fully  exhibited ;  at  the  same  time  much  incidental 
illustration  is  given,  not  contained  in  any  other  school 
grammar  within  our  knowledge.  A  book  designed  for 
reference,  as  a  full  treatise  on  etymology  and  syntax, 
very  properly  contains  much  material  which  would  be 
out  of  place  in  a  brief  manual  like  the  present.  We  do 
not  believe  that  it  is  best  for  the  learner  to  begin  with 
as  large  a  book  as  he  may  require  afterwards  ;  and 
besides,  if  principles  are  to  be  taught,  and  not  dead 
rules,  it  is  a  clear  advantage  not  to  become  wedded  to 
any  set  form  of  words. 

Two  or  three  points  seem  to  require  brief  explana- 
tion to  teachers  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using 
the  ordinary  text-books. 

First,  the  recognition  of  the  Locative  Case,  which  has 
been  sometimes  called  the  "  Dative  of  Place."  The 
fact  we  wish  to  recognize  in  the  structure  of  the  lan- 
guage is  one  which  all  grammarians  admit;  and  to 
accept  it  will  be  to  many  persons  a  real  relief  from  the 
old  arbitrary  and  unintelligible  rule. 

In  interpreting  the  Subjunctive,  we  have  thought 
best  to  give  it  no  separate  translation  in  the  paradigms. 


X  PREFACE. 

To  render  it,  as  is  often  done,  by  the  English  Potential, 
is  as  misleading  as  any  false  step,  so  low  down  among 
the  elements,  can  well  be.  We  have  accordingly  illus- 
trated its  use,  at  the  outset,  by  a  score  of  select  ex- 
amples of  Latin  idiom ;  and  trust  in  the  Syntax  to  have 
made  it  as  clear  as  is  consistent  with  the  brevity  of 
our  plan. 

In  simplifying  the  treatment  of  the  Gerund  and 
Gerundive,  we  have  followed  the  best  English  authori- 
ties, from  Milton's  brief  Latin  «  Accedence,"  to  the 
works  of  Donaldson,  Key,  and  D'Arcy  Thompson.  The 
phrase  "  Nominative  of  the  Gerund."  which  we  have 
employed,  is  easily  understood ;  it  suggests  an  explana- 
tion of  the  subject  which  many  scholars  prefer  to  that 
usually  given  ;  and  it  need  not  be  taken  as  controvert- 
ing the  more  common  doctrine,  that  the  form  in  ques- 
tion is  the  Neuter  of  the  Future  Passive  Participle, 
used  impersonally. 

The  Syntax  of  the  Moods  will  be  found  relatively 
more  full  than  other  parts  of  the  book ;  this  we  have 
thought  warranted  by  the  difficulty  and  peculiar  obscu- 
rity of  the  subject.  In  general,  we  have  not,  as  is 
usually  done,  treated  the  Subjunctive  by  itself;  but 
have  classified  the  usages  in  the  different  kinds  of 
subordinate  clauses,  in  nearly  all  of  which  either 
that  or  the  Indicative  may  be  employed  in  special  rela- 
tions. Here,  as  everywhere,  we  have  derived  constant 
assistance  from  Madvig's  "Lateinische  Sprachlehre," 
the  best  single  treatise  upon  Latin  grammar  with 


PREFACE.  Xi 

which  we  are  acquainted :  from  this  we  have  taken 
more  special  points  than  from  all  other  sources  com- 
bined. We  are  far  from  claiming  an  entirely  satisfac- 
tory treatment  of  the  Subjunctive,  which  indeed  has 
never  yet  been  adequately  analyzed,  and  which  is  much 
more  difficult  in  Latin  than  in  Greek.  Conditional 
Sentences,  however,  in  which  we  have  followed  the  doc- 
trine of  Goodwin's  "  Greek  Moods  and  Tenses,"  we 
believe  will  be  found  nowhere  more  fully  explained 
than  here. 

In  the  matter  of  Prosody,  we  have  given  enough  to 
enable  the  student  to  analyze  for  himself,  and  to  read 
easily  into  metre,  all  the  forms  of  verse  in  Virgil,  Ovid, 
Horace,  and  (excepting  a  few  lyrical  passages)  in  the 
Dramatic  writers.  For  instruction  in  the  difficult  art 
of  composition  in  Latin  verse,  —  should  that  be  thought 
desirable,  —  or  for  exhibitions  of  quantity  complete 
enough  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  in  it,  the  learner  must 
go  to  other  sources. 

In  many  points,  both  of  etymology  and  syntax,  we 
have  availed  ourselves  of  the  counsel  and  guidance  of 
Professor  LANE,  of  Harvard  University ;  who  has 
greatly  aided  us  by  his  care  in  examining  the  earlier 
proof-sheets,  and  by  the  suggestions  of  his  very  exact 
and  thorough  scholarship.  In  points  of  practical  adap- 
tation to  the  wants  of  classes,  the  long  experience  of 
our  brother,  Rev.  T.  P.  ALLEN,  of  West  Newton,  Mass., 
has  been  a  valuable  guide.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
Syntax,  we  are  under  especial  obligation  to  Professor 


Xii  PREFACE. 

J.  B.  FEULING,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  who 
kindly  read  over  the  whole  manuscript  of  this  portion, 
and  made  many  valuable  suggestions. 

In  addition  we  would  say,  that,  while  this  is  intended 
to  be  a  sufficient  text-book  for  the  learner,  —  at  least 
until  some  more  copious  systematic  treatise  is  required 
during  a  college  course,  —  it  is  not  claimed  to  be 
sufficient  for  the  teacher.  For  his  daily  use  in  the 
class-room,  as  well  as  for  his  own  more  accurate 
information,  he  needs  the  ampler  material  so  indus- 
triously gathered  in  the  many  excellent  manuals  in 
use.  But,  for  ever  so  short  a  course  in  classical 
instruction,  we  hold  that  the  language  itself,  and  the 
literature  which  contains  it,  is  the  real  object  of  study ; 
and  that  every  hour  spent  on  the  details  of  grammar, 
which  does  not  directly  help  to  this,  is  an  injury  to  the 
student's  progress,  and  a  wrong  to  his  intelligence. 

Finally,  this  book  is  not  meant  for  children.  For 
most  learners,  we  think,  it  would  be  better  to  wait  till 
at  least  thirteen  or  fourteen,  before  attempting  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  so  difficult  a  tongue.  At  that  age, 
an  intelligent  boy  or  girl,  who  studies  it  at  all,  ought 
to  be  led  at  once  to  those  forms  of  it  which  can  be 
readily  understood  and  enjoyed. 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS. 
August,  1868. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.  — FORMS  OF  WORDS.     (ETYMOLOGY.) 

SECT.  PAGE 

1.  Alphabet 1 

2.  Pronunciation 2 

3.  Quantity 2 

4.  Accent 3 

5.  Inflection 3 

6.  Gender 4 

7.  Case 4 

8.  Declension     .  5 


NOUNS. 

9.  First  Declension 6 

10.  Second  Declension 7 

11.  Third  Declension.     I.  Vowel  Stems    .......  8 

II.  Liquid  Stems 9 

in.  Mute  Stems 9 

IY.  General  Rules 11 

12.  Fourth  Declension 11 

13.  Fifth  Declension 12 

14.  Irregular  Nouns.     I.  Defective       . 12 

II.  Variable 13 

15.  Proper  Names    . .     .  13 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

SECT.                                    ADJECTIVES.  PAGE 

16.  Inflection.     I.  First  and  Second  Declension      ....  14 

II.  Third  Declension 15 

17.  Comparison 15 

18.  Numerals.     I.  Cardinal  and  Ordinal 18 

II.  Distributive   .     .     .     .    • 19 

PRONOUNS. 

19.  Personal  and  Reflective    ...........  20 

20.  Demonstrative 21 

21.  Relative 22 

22.  Correlatives 23 

VERBS. 

23.  Structure •    .  24 

24.  Moods 24 

25.  Participles 26 

26.  Gerund  and  Supine 27 

27.  Tenses 28 

28.  Personal  Endings 30 

29.  Esse .     .  30 

abesse,  adesse,  posse,  prodesse 32 

30.  Conjugation 32 

31.  Active  Voice 34 

32.  Passive  Voice ..     .  36 

33.  Rules  of  Conjugation 38 

34.  Forms  of  Conjugation 38 

35.  Deponent  Verbs 40 

36.  Derivative  Verbs 41 

37.  Irregular  Verbs 41 

volo,  nolo,  malo 41 

fero,  edo,  eo,  facio,  queo 42 

38.  Defective  Verbs,  coepi,  aio,  inquam,  fari,  salve,  &c.    .  43 

39.  Impersonal  Verbs 43 

40.  Periphrastic  Forms 44 

41.  Adverbs 44 

42.  Prepositions 46 

43.  Conjunctions 47 

44.  Formation  of  Words    ...  50 


CONTENTS.  XV 


PART  II.  — USE  OF  WORDS.     (SYNTAX.) 

SECT.  PAGE 

45.  Definitions 53 

I.  RULES  OF  AGREEMENT. 

46.  Of  Nouns 53 

47.  Of  Adjectives 54 

48.  Of  Relatives 57 

49.  Of  Verbs 58 

II.  RULES  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

50.  Genitive 59 

51.  Dative 63 

52.  Accusative 66 

53.  Vocative .     .  68 

54.  Ablative 69 

55.  Time  and  Place 73 

56.  Prepositions 75 

III.  SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 

Sequence  of  Tenses 77 

Moods 80 

Conditional  Sentences 81 

Implied  Conditions 84 

Conditional  Particles 85 

Relations  of  Time 86 

Cause  or  Reason 87 

Purpose 88 

Consequence  or  Result 89 

Intermediate  Clauses 90 

Oratio  Obliqua 91 

Wishes  and  Commands 95 

Subjunctive  with  Relatives 96 

Substantive  Clauses 96 

Questions 98 

Participles 99 

Gerund  and  Gerundive 99 

Supine 101 

General  Rules  of  Syntax 102 

Arrangement 103 


XVi  CONTENTS. 


PART  III.  — RULES  OF  VERSE.    (PROSODY.) 

SECT.  PAGE 

77.  Rhythm 105 

78.  Quantity.     I.  General  Rules 105 

II.  Final  Syllables 106 

III.  Penultimate  Syllables 108 

79.  Feet Ill 

80.  Scanning 113 

81.  Metre 1U 

82.  Forms  of  Verse  115 


83.  Reckoning  of  Time 119 

84.  Reckoning  of  Money 119 

85.  Roman  Prsenomens 120 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


PART     FIRST. 

FORMS     OP    WORDS.     (ETYMOLOGY.) 


1.     ALPHABET. 

THE  Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
wanting  W. 

Vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  Diphthongs  are  ae,  oe  (often 
written  98,  oe),  ail,  en,  and  in  poetry  ei  and  ui. 

Mute  Consonants  are  p,  b,  f,  V  (labial)  ;  t,  d  (dental)  ; 
c  (k,)  g  (palatal).  Liquids  are  1,  m,  n,  r.  Double  Conso- 
nants are  x  (cs),  z  (ds). 

The  Aspirate,  h,  is  merely  a  silent  breathing,  and  is  not 
reckoned  as  a  Consonant. 

The  Roman  Alphabet  consisted  of  21  letters,  viz., 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  fTg,  h,  i,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  x. 

y  and  z  were  added,  in  words  derived  from  Greek. 

i  and  u,  when  used  as  consonants  (having  the  sound  of  y  and 
w),  are  generally  written  j  and  v;  as,  juvenis,  a  youth,  for 
iuuenis. 

k  is  used  only  in  a  few  words,  generally  at  the  beginning,  and 
is  always  followed  by  a. 

c  is  usually  written  for  k ;  and  often  for  qu,  (regularly  when , 
followed  by  u) :  as  in  cum  (for  quum)  when ;  secutus  (for 
sequutus)  having  followed ;  and  more  rarely,  in  ecus  (for 
equus)  a  horse,  cotidie  (for  quotidie)  daily,  and  others. 


2  PRONUNCIATION.  —  QUANTITY.  §§  2, 3 

In  early  use,  u  never  follows  u  (v),  but  o  instead :  as  in  volt, 
•trill.  Oih-ii,  i  is  put  lor  ii,  or  ji,  as  in  obit,  died;  obicit,  hits.  Ex- 
amples of  variation  in  spelling  are,  -undus  or  -endus  in  gerund 
forms  ;  -umus  or imus  in  superlatives  ;  adulescens,  youth,  epistu- 
la,  Idler,  for  adolescens,  epistola ;  cena,  caena,  coena,  supper. 

The  last  letter  of  the  Prepositions  ab,  ad,  con  (cum),  ex,  in 
and  sub,  when  combined  with  other  words,  is  often  altered  to  give 
an  cvoiKT  sound:  as  ad-  or  al-latus,  brought,  in-  or  im-mensus, 
boHmltejtfi ;  sub-  or  suf-fero,  sustain. 

The  verb  est,  i'.s*,  is  sometimes  joined  in  spelling  with  the 
previous  word,  especially  in  the  old  poets,  or  when  the  two  would 
be  united  by  elision :  as  homost,  he  is  a  man,  periculumst,  there 
is  danger.  So  vin',  wilt  ?  scin',  Jmow'st  ?  for  visne,  scisne. 

In  the  division  of  syllables,  a  consonant  between  two  vowels 
is  always  written  with  the  latter ;  as  do-mi-nus,  master :  also,  any 
combination  of  consonants  which  can  be  used  to  begin  a  word ;  as 
ho-spes,  guest ;  ma-gnus,  great ;  a-strum,  star ;  di-xit,  said. 

2.     PRONUNCIATION. 

Among  us,  Latin  is  generally  pronounced  like  English. 
But  there  are  no  silent  letters,  except  in  scanning  verse,  by 
the  usage  called  elision. 

c  and  g  are  made  soft  before  e,  i,  y,  and  the  diphthongs  ae, 
eu,  oe, ;  ch  is  always  like  k ;  es  and  (in  plural  cases)  OS,  are 
pronounced  as  in  disease,  morose. 

The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  Vowels  was  no  doubt  like  the 
Italian.  In  English,  for  the  long  and  short  vowels  respectively,  it 
may  be  nearly  represented  thus  :  — 

a  as  in  father,  fast;  e  as  in  rein,  met;  i  as  in  machine,  fill ;  o  as 
in  holy,  'wholly ;  u  as  in  rude,  full. 

c  and  g  were  probably  always  sounded  hard. 

3.     QUANTITY. 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short;  as,  via,  way. 
"2.   \  diphthong  is  long;  as,  foedus.,  league. 
3.  A    syllable    formed   by  contraction    is    long;    as,  nil, 
nothing,  for  nlhll. 


§§  4, 5  ACCENT.  —  INFLECTION.  3 

4.  A  vowel  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant 
is  long,  as  rectus,  straight,  judex,  juror:  but  a  short  vowel 
before  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r,  is  common,  as  in  volucris, 
bird ;  that  is,  it  may  be  long  in  verse. 

The  sign  ~  denotes  that  a  vowel  is  long ;    "  that  it  is  short. 
A  short  vowel  differs  from  a  long  one  not  in  sound  but  in 
length ;  as  in  pater,  father,  mater,  mother. 

4,     ACCENT. 

Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the 
Penult ;  as-,  e'rant,  they  were. 

Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the 
Penult,  if  that  is  long  ;  as,  ami'cus,  friend:  if  it  is  short,  or 
common,  then  on  the  Antepenult;  as,  dom/inus,  master; 
aFacrls,  eager. 

The  Penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  the  Antepenult,  the 
last  but  two  (paene,  almost ;  ultima,  last.) 

5.     INFLECTION. 

1.  Inflection  is  a  change  made  in  the  ending  of  a  word  to 
express  some  change  in  meaning;    as,  VOC  0,  I  call;  VOC  at, 
he  calls. 

2.  That  part  of  the  word  which  remains   unchanged  is 
called  the  Root  or  Stem.     When  a  primitive  form,  common 
to  Latin  with  other  languages,  it  is  always  called  the  Root : 
thus  the  root  of  fug  a,  flight,  is  found  in  the  English  fug- 
itive. 

3.  In  Latin,  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  Participles,  are 
inflected  to  express  Declension  (gender,  number,  and  case)  ; 
Adjectives  and  Adverbs  to  express  Comparison  ;  Verbs  to  ex- 
press Conjugation  (voice,  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person). 

4.  Those  parts  of  speech  which  are  not  inflected  are  called 
Particles :  they  are,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjec- 
tions.    Adverbs,  especially  those  of  time,  place,  and  manner, 
are  also  sometimes  reckoned  as  Particles. 


4  GENDER.  —  CASE.  §  6,  7 

6.     GENDER. 

1  Gender  maybe  either  natural,  as  puer,  boy;  puella, 
girl;  malum,  apple:  or  grammatical,  as  lapis,  stone  (masc.) ; 
manus,  hand  (fern.). 

2.  The  following  are  general  rules  of  gender  :  - 

Names  of  Rivers  (except  a  few  ending  in  a)  are  masculine :  as, 
Tamesis,  the  Thames;  Rh6danus,  the  Rhone. 

Most  names  of  Plants  are  feminine :  as,  cornus,  cornel. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  or  Phrases  used  as  nouns,  are  neuter ;  as, 
Ulud  Cassianum,  "Cui  bono  fuerit,"  that  saymg  of  Cassius, 
"  For  whose,  advantage  it  ioas" 

3.  Many  Nouns  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  ac- 
cording to  sex  ;  as,  exsul,  exile  ;  bos,  ox,  cow.     They  are  said 
to  be  of  Common  Gender. 

4.  A  few  are  always  connected  with  adjectives  in  the  same 
gender,  either   masculine  or  feminine,   independent   of  sex  ; 
thus,  anser,   goose,  is    always    masculine,   and  vulpes,  fox, 
feminine.     They  are  called  Epicene. 

7.     CASE. 
There  are  in  Latin  six  Cases  ;  namely,  — 

1.  NOMINATIVE,  used  as  the  subject  of  a  direct  proposition  :  as, 
pater  meus  adest,  my  father  is  here. 

2.  GENITIVE   (o/),  generally  denoting  origin  or  possession ; 
also  used  with  many  adjectives  and  verbs,  especially  those  express- 
in^  emotion :  as, 

• 

patris  ejiis  amiciis  miseretur  mei,  his  father  *s  friend  pities  me. 
:\.  DATIVE  (to  or  for),  generally  used  for  the  indirect  object 
after  a  verb  or  adjective  :  as, 
dedit  mihi  ensem  :  magno  mihi  iisui  erat;  he  gave  me  a  sword: 

it  iv as  of  great  service  to  me. 

4.  Ac  rrsAiivE  (toivards),  used  as  the  direct  object  of  a  verb, 
and  after  most  prepositions  :  as, 

dum  agrum  arabat  m  hortum  veni,  ivhite  he  was  ploughing  the 
field  I  came  into  the  garden. 


§  8  DECLENSION.  5 

5.  VOCATIVE,  used  in  direct  address  :  as, 

hue  veni  care  mi  filiole,  come  hither  my  dear  little  son. 

6.  ABLATIVE  (by,  from,  with),  used  with  many  verbs  and  pre- 
positions :  as, 

in  horto  ludebamus  et  cultello  me  laesit,   we  were  playing  in 
the  garden  and  he  hurt  me  with  a  knife. 

All,  excepting  the  nominative  and  vocative,  are  often  called 
Oblique  cases. 

7.  Some  grammarians  reckon  also  a  Locative  case,  signifying 
the  place  where :  it  is  generally  the  same  in  form  with  the  Dative, 
and  may  be  called  the  Dative  of  Place  :  as, 

Romae  vel  Athems  esse  velim,  I  should  like  to  be  at  Home  or 
Athens. 

8.     DECLENSION. 

I.  There  are  five  Declensions  of  nouns  in  Latin,  distin- 
guished by  the  termination  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  by 
their  characteristic   or  leading  vowel.      These   are   as   fol- 
lows :  — 

DECL.  1.  Gen.  Sing,  ae,  Leading  Vowel  a 

»  2.  „          I  „            ,,o 

»  3-  ,,          is  ,,            ,,      i 

„  4.  „          us  „             „      u 

,,  5.  ,,          ei  ,,             ,,      e 

II.  The  following  are  general  rules  of  declension :  — 

1.  The  vocative  is  always  the  same  in  form  with  the  nomina- 
tive, except  in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  us,  of  the  second  declen- 
sion. 

2.  In  Neuters,  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  always  alike, 
and  in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

3.  Except  in  neuters,  the  accusative  singular  always  ends  in 
m,  and  the  accusative  plural  in  s. 

4.  In  the  most  ancient  form,  the  dative  singular  of  all  the 
declensions  ends  in  I;  in  the  third  declension,  the  locative  case 
may  end  in  e  or  I. 

5.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 

6.  The  genitive  plural  always  ends  in  um. 


NOUNS.  —  FIRST   DECLENSION. 


§9 


NOUNS. 


9.     FIRST  DECLENSION,     (a.) 


NOMINATIVE. 

GENITIVE. 

DATIVE. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

VOCATIVE. 

ABLATIVE. 


SINGULAR. 
stell  a, 
stell  ae, 
stell  ae, 
stell  am, 
stell  a, 
stell  a, 


a  star, 
of  a  star, 
to  a  star, 
a  star, 
ihou  star ! 
with  a  star. 


NOMINATIVE. 

GENITIVE. 

DATIVE. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

VOCATIVE. 

ABLATIVE. 


PLURAL. 
stell  ae, 
stell  arum, 
stell  is, 
stell  as, 
stell  ae, 
stell  is, 


stars, 
of  stars, 
to  stars, 
stars, 
.ye  stars! 
with  stars. 


1.  Most  nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  feminine. 

2.  The   genitive  and  dative  singular   anciently  ended  in   ai, 
which  is  occasionally  found  in  a  few  words,  as,  aulai,  of  a  hall. 
There  is  also  an  old  genitive  in  as.  found  in  paterfamilias. 

3.  The  genitive  plural,  especially  of  compounds  with  cola  and 
gena,  signifying  dwelling  and  descent,  is  sometimes  contracted  into 
urn,  as  coelicolum,  of  the  heavenly  ones. 

4.  The  dative    and    ablative    plural  of   dea,   goddess,   filia, 
daiiyhter,  and  a  few  others,  end  in  the  old  regular  form  abiis. 

5.  Some  Greek  nonns  end  in  as,  es  (masc.),  and  e  (fern.)  in 
the  nominative,   and  n  in  the  accusative ;    those  in  e  have  the 
genitive  in  es  :  as,  Aeneas,  ace.  Aenean,  voc.  Aenea  ;  Anchises, 
gen.  Anchisae,  ace.  Anchisen,  voc.  Anchise ;  Penelope,  Peiie- 
Ibpes,  Penelopen  ;  grammatice  or  grammatica,  grammar. 


§10 


SECOND    DECLENSION. 


10,     SECOND  DECLENSION,     (o,) 

MOST  nouns  of  the  second  declension  ending  in  us  (os), 
er,  ir,  are  masculine ;  those  ending  in  urn  (on)  are  neuter. 


SINGULAR. 


Man. 

Book. 

Slave. 

War. 

Nom. 

vir 

liber 

servu-s  (63) 

belliim 

Gen. 

vir  I 

libri 

servi 

belli 

Dat. 

vir  6 

libro 

serv  o 

bello 

Ace. 

vir  urn 

libr  um 

serv  um 

bell  um 

-¥our- 

vir 

liber 

serv  e 

bell  um 

Abl. 

vir  5 

libro 

servo 

bell  5 

Norn. 

viri 

libri 

servi 

bell  a 

^Gen. 

vir  orum 

libr  orum 

serv.orum 

bell  orum 

Dat. 

vir  is 

libr  is 

serv  is 

bell  is 

Ace. 

vir  os 

libr  os 

serv  6s 

bell  a 

Voc. 

vir  I 

libri 

servi 

bell  a 

Abl. 

vir  is 

libr  is 

serv  Is 

bell  is 

1.  Some  Greek  words  end  in  os  (M.)  or  on  (N.)  ;  as,  arctos, 
tJie  Polar  Bear ;  barbiton,  lyre.      The  old  form  os,  on,  for  us,  um, 
after  u  or  v,  as  in  servbs,  and  the  gen.  pi.  on,  are  sometimes  found. 

2.  Names  of  towns  in  us  (os)  are  feminine :  as,   Corinthus. 

3.  The  old  form  of  the  gen.  sing,  in  ius  (oius)  and  dative  in  i 
(oi)  is  found  in  a  few  adjectives  (see  §16,  i).     The  locative  sin- 
gular ends  in  i :  as,  Corinthi,  at  Corinth. 

4.  The  genitive  of  nouns  in  ius  and  ium  is  often  written  with 
a  single  i:  as  fill,  of  a  son,  ingg'm,  of  genius. 

5.  Proper  names  in  ius  drop  e  in  the  vocative ;  as,  Vergilius, 
voc.  Vergili:  also  films,  son,  and  genius,  divine  guardian. 

6.  In  the  gen.  plur.  orum  is  often  contracted  into  um  or  om. 

7.  Deus,  God,  has  voc.   deus;    plural,   n.  v.   dei,  dii,  or  di; 
dat.  abl.  deis,   diis,  dis.      For  the  genitive   plural,   divum   or 
divom  is  often  used. 

8.  Nouns  in  er  generally  drop  e  in  declining,  as  in  ager,  agri, 
field:    but    retain    it   in    puer,  boy;    gener,  son-in-law;   socer, 
father-in-law  ;  vesper,  evening ;  and  a  few  others. 

9.  Vulgus,  mob ;  pelagiis,  sea;  and  virus, poison,  are  neuter. 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  §11 


11.     THIRD   DECLENSION. 

NOUNS  of  the  third  declension  are  classed  according  to 
their  stems,  whether  ending  in  a  Vowel,  a  Liquid,  or  a  Mute 
Consonant. 


I.     VOWEL  STEMS,     (i.) 

SING.  N. 

Ship(F.) 
navis 

Cloud  (v.) 
nubes 

Sea  (N.) 
mare 

G. 

nav  13 

nub  is 

mar  is 

D. 

navi 

nubi 

mari 

Ac. 
Ab. 

nav  em  (im) 

nub  em 

mare 

nav  13            . 
nave  (i) 

nube 

mari 

PLU.  N. 

nav  63 

nubes 

maria 

G. 

nav  ium 

nub  ium 

mar  ium 

D. 

nav  ibus 

nub  ibus 

mar  ibus 

Ac. 

nav  es  (Is) 

nubes  (is) 

maria 

V. 

naves 

nubes 

maria 

Ab. 

nav  ibus. 

nub  ibus 

mar  ibus 

1.  A  few  nouns  in  al  and  ar  are  properly  neuters  of  adjec- 
tives in  alis,   (omitting  the  final  e),  and   belong  to  this   class. 
They  are  declined  like  mare:   as,  animal,   alis,  pi.   animalia, 
tiring  tiling  (from  anima,  breath) ;  calcar,  aris,  spur  (from  calx, 
lieeT). 

2.  The  old  forms  of  sing.  ace.  in  im,  and  abl.  in  i,  and  of  the 
plur.  ace.  in  is,  are  found  in  many  words.      In  Adjectives  of  this 
form  the  nom.  sing,  is  and  abl.  I  are  always  used. 

3.  Several  names  of  towns,  as  Praeneste,  Caere,  and  the  moun- 
tain Soracte  (N.),  have  the  ablative  e.     Sometimes,  also,  mare, 
sea,  and  rete,  net. 

4.  A  few  nouns,  as  canis,  dog,  juvenis,  youth,  have  the  gen- 
itive plural  in  urn. 

5.  Vis,  force,   has   ace.    vim,   abl.   vi,   plur.   vires,   virium, 
viribus. 

6.  Greek  proper  names  in  is  have  ace.  im,  and  voc.  i;  as, 
Alexis,  Alexim,  Alexi. 


§11 


THIRD    DECLENSION. 


II.     LIQUID  STEMS.     (1,  11,  r.) 

Exile  (M.F.) 

JKimk  (ai.) 

Honor  (M.) 

Father  (M.) 

SIN. 

N,V. 

exsul 

ordo 

honor  (6s) 

pater 

G. 

exsul  is 

ordiii  is 

honor  is 

patr  is 

D. 

exsul  I 

ordiii  i 

honor  i 

patri 

Ac. 

exsul  em 

ordiii  em 

honor  em 

patr  em 

Ab. 

exsul  e 

ordiii  e 

honor  e 

patr  e 

PL. 

N.A.V. 

eXSUl  63 

ordin  es 

honor  es 

patr  es 

G. 

exsul  um 

ordiii  um 

honor  um 

patr  um 

D.Ab. 

exsul  ibus 

ordin  ibus 

honor  ibus 

patr  ibus 

Name  (N.) 

Work  (N.) 

&*fy(N,) 

Leg  (N.) 

SIN. 

N.  Y. 

nomen 

opus 

corpus 

crus 

G. 

nomm  is 

oper  is 

corpor  is 

crur  is 

D. 

nomiii  I 

operi 

corpor  i 

crur  i 

Ac. 

nomeii 

opus 

corpus 

crus 

Ab. 

nomiii  e 

oper  e 

corpor  e 

crure 

PL. 

N.A.V. 

nomiii  a 

oper  a 

corpor  a 

crur  a 

G. 

nomiii  um 

oper  um 

corpor  um 

crur  um 

D.Ab. 

nomin  ibus 

oper  ibus 

corpor  ibus 

crur  ibus 

III.     MUTE  STEMS. 

Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Mute  Consonant  generally 
form  the  Nominative  Singular  by  adding  S. 

1.  If  the  Mute  is  a  Labial,  (b,  m,  p,)  s  is  added  simply 
with  or  without  change  of  vowel :  as, 


City  (F.) 

Chief  (TA.) 

Winter  (F.) 

SIN. 

ST.V. 

urbs 

princeps 

hiems  (ps) 

G. 

urbis 

priiicip  is 

hiem  is 

D. 

urbi 

princip  i 

hiemi 

Ac. 

urb  em 

priiicip  em 

hiem  em 

Ab. 

urb  e 

princip  e 

hieme 

PL, 

N.A.V. 

urb  es 

princip  es 

hiem  es 

G. 

urb  ium 

priiicip  um 

hiem  um 

D.Ab. 

urb  ibus 

priiicip  ibus 

hiem  ibus 

1* 

10 


THIRD    DECLENSION. 


§11 


2.  If  the  Mute  is  a  Dental  (d,  t),  it  is  suppressed  before 
s  ;  in  Neuters,  s  is  not  added  :  as, 


SIN. 


PL. 


Stone  (M.) 

Companion  (M.) 

Heart  (N.) 

Tooth  (M.) 

N.T. 

lapis 

comes 

cor 

dens 

G. 

lapid  is 

comit  is 

cord  is 

dent  is 

D. 

lapid  I 

comit  i 

cordi 

dent  i 

Ac. 

lapid  em 

comit  em 

cor 

dent  em 

Ab. 

lapid  e 

comit  e 

cord  e 

dent  e 

N.A.Y. 

lapid  es 

comit  es 

cord  a 

dent  es 

G. 


lapid  um         comit  um 


D .  Ab .     lapid  ibus       comit  ibus 


dent  ium 
cord  ibus    dent  ibus 


3.  If  the  Mute  is  a  Palatal   (c,  g),  it  is  combined  with 
S  in  X  :  as, 


Nut(F.) 

King  (M.) 

Juror  (M.) 

Rower  (M.) 

Six. 

N.  V. 

nux 

rex 

judex 

remex 

G. 

nuc  is 

reg  is 

judic  is 

remig  is 

D. 

nuci 

regi 

judic  i 

remigi 

Ac. 

nuc  em 

regem 

judic  em 

remig  em 

Ab. 

nuc  e 

rege 

judic  e 

remig  e 

PL. 

N.A.V. 

nuc  es 

reges 

judic  es 

remig  es 

G.  nuc  um         reg  um         judic  um         remig  um 

D.  Ab.      nuc  ibus       reg  ibus       judic  ibus       remig  ibus 

4.  Peculiar  forms  are  — 

Niyht(v.)      Snow(F)      Fltsh  (F.)      Bone  (N.)       Old  Man. 


Six. 

N.V. 

nox 

nix 

caro 

OS 

senex 

G. 

noctis 

nivis 

carnis 

ossis 

sems 

D. 

nocti 

nivi 

carni 

ossi 

seni 

Ac. 

noctem 

nivem 

carnem 

OS 

senem 

Ab. 

nocte 

nive 

carne 

osse 

sene 

PL. 

N.A.Y. 

noctes 

iiives 

carnes 

ossa 

seiies 

G. 

noctium 

carnium 

ossium 

senum 

D.  Ab.     noctibus     nivibus     carnibus  ossibus     senibus 

aer  (M.),  air,  lias  the  accusative  aera. 

mel,  lioney,  and  fel,  gall  (x.),  have  the  gen.  mellis,  fellis. 

lac,  (x.)  milk,  has  gen.  lactis. 


§12  FOURTH   DECLENSION.  11 

5.  Irregular  forms  are  — 

iter,  itineris  (N.),  journey. 
jeciir,  jecoris  or  jecinoris  (N.),  liver. 

bos,  bovis  ;    pi.  g.   bourn,   D.    bobus,   bubus    (M.  F.),   ox, 
cow. 

siipellex,  supellectnis  (F.),  furniture. 

lampas,  lampados,  or  is,  ace.  lampada,  lamp,  (F.) 

Juppiter,  Jovis. 


IV.     GENERAL  RULES  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

Nouns  ending  in  o,  or,  OS,  er,  and  es  (increasing)  are 

masculine  ; 
those  in  as,  es  (not  increasing),  io,  ys,  x,  and  s  preceded 

by  a  consonant,  also  in  do,  go,  io,  are  feminine  ; 
those  in  a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ur,  us,  are  neuter. 

A  noun  is  said  to  increase,  when  in  any  case  it  has  more  sylla- 
bles than  in  the  nominative  singular.  In  such  case,  the  penult 
is  called  the  Increment  of  the  noun. 

Increments  of  nouns  in  a  and  o  (M.  F.),  are  generally  long; 
those  in  e,  o  (N.),  i,  u,  and  y,  short. 

The  locative  case  is  sometimes  written  with  e,  especially  in 
poetry:  as,  Karthagine  (for  Karthagini),  at  Carthage. 

Many  nouns,  especially  those  of  one  syllable,  ending  in  two 
consonants  or  a  double  consonant,  make  the  genitive  plural  in 
ium:  as  cliens,  client  ;  urbs,  city  ;  nox,  night. 

12.     FOURTH  DECLENSION,     (u,) 


Car  (M.) 

Needle  (F.) 

Knee  (N.) 

SIN. 

JSF.V. 

curriis 

aciis 

genu 

G. 

curr  us 

acus 

germ  (us) 

D. 

currui  (u) 

acui 

genu 

Ac. 

curr  um 

acum 

genii 

Ab. 

curr  u 

acu 

genu 

PL. 

N.A.Y. 

curr  us 

acus 

genu  a 

G. 

curr  uum 

acuum 

genu  urn 

D.Ab. 

curr  ibiis 

acu  bus 

genii  bus 

12  FIFTH   DECLENSION.  —  IRREGULAR   NOUNS.      §§13,14 

1.  Most  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  are  formed  from  the 
supine  stem  of  verbs:  as,  cantus,  song,  from  cano;  visus,  sight, 
from  video. 

2.  Domus,  house,  has  ablative  singular  domo,  genitive  plural 
domorum,  or  domuum ;  accusative  plural,  domos :    domi,  less 
frequently  domui,  (locative)  means  at  home. 

13.     FIFTH  DECLENSION,     (e.) 

The  only  complete  nouns  of  this  declension  are  dies,  day, 
and  res,  thing.     They  are  thus  declined :  — 

Thing  (F.)' 


SINGULAR  N.  V. 

dies 

res 

G. 

diei 

rei 

D. 

diei 

rei 

Ac. 

diem 

rem 

Ab. 

die 

re 

PLURAL  N.  A.  Y. 

dies 

res 

G. 

die  rum 

re  rum 

D.  Ab. 

die  bus 

rebus 

Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  want  the  plural. 
Dies  is  often  feminine  in  the  singular  in  phrases  indicating  a 
fixed  time :  as  constituta  die,  on  the  set  day. 

The  termination  of  the  nominative  singular  is  generally  ies. 

14.     IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 
I.     DEFECTIVE. 

1.  Wanting  the  singular:  as, 

llbe'ri,  children  ;  arma,  weapons  ;  penates,  household  gods. 

2.  Wanting  the  nominative  :  as, 

dapis,  of  food;  frugis,  of  fruit  (plural  complete). 

3.  Found  only  in  one  or  two  cases  :  as, 

fors,  forte,  chance;  vicis  (gen.),  vicem,  vice,  vices,  vicibus, 
change  or  turn  ;  sponte  (sua  sponte,  of  his  own  accord)  ; 
injussu,  without  orders. 

4.  Indeclinable  :  as, 

fas,  rigid ;  ngfas,  wrong ;  pondo,  pound. 


§15  PROPER   NAMES.  13 

II.     VARIABLE. 

1.  Many  nouns  vary  in  meaning  as  they  are  found  in  the 
singular  or  plural :  as, 

aedes,  is  (F.),  temple.  aedes,  ium,  house. 

auxilium  (x.),  help.  auxilia,  auxiliaries.  + 

career  (M.),  dungeon.  carceres,  barriers  (of  a  race- 

castrum  (x.),/br£.  castra,  camp.  [course.) 

copia  (F.),  plenty.  copiae,  troops. 

finis  (M.),  end.  fines,  bounds,  territory. 

gratia  (F . ) ,  favor.  gratiae,  thanks . 

impedimentum  (N.),  hinderance.  impedimenta,  baggage. 
littera  (F.),  letter  (of  alphabet.)      litterae,  epistle. 
locus  (M.), place  [pi.  loca  (x.)]      loci,  passages  in  books. 
opis  (F.  gen.),  help.  opes,  resources,  wealth. 

plaga  (F.),  region  [plaga,  blow},      plagae,  snares. 
sal  (M.  or  N.),  salt.  sales,  untticisms. 

sestertius  (M.)  means  the  sum  of  2£  asses,  =  about  4  cents, 
sestertium  (x.)  means  the  sum  of  1000  sestertii,  =  about  $40. 
decies  sestertium  means  the  sum  of  1000  sestertia,  =  $40,000. 

2.  Sometimes  a  noun  in  combination  with  an  adjective  takes  a 
special  signification,  both  parts  being  regularly  inflected:  as, 
jusjuraiidum,  jurisjurandi,  oath. 

respublica,  reipublicae,  commonwealth. 

15,     PROPER  NAMES. 

A  Roman  had  regularly  three  names.  Thus,  in  the  name 
Marcus  Tullius  Cicero,  we  have  — 

Marcus,  the  praenomen,  or  personal  name  ; 

Tullius,  the  nomen;  i.e.,  name  of  the  Gens,  or  house,  whose 
original  head  was  Tullus  ;  this  name  is  an  adjective  ; 

Cicero,  the  cognomen,  or  family  name,  often  in  its  origin 
a  nickname,  —  in  this  case  from  cicer,  a  vetch,  or  small  pea. 

Women  had  no  personal  names,  but  were  known  only  by 
that  of  their  gens.  Thus  the  wife  of  Cicero  was  Terentia, 
and  his  daughter  Tullia.  A  younger  sister  would  have  been 
called  Tullia  secimda,  and  so  on. 


14  ADJECTIVES.  —  INFLECTION.  §  16 


ADJECTIVES. 


16,     INFLECTION. 

ADJECTIVES  are  declined  like  Nouns ;  and  are  either  of 
the  First  and  Second  Declension,  or  of  the  Third. 

I.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declension  are  thus 
declined :  — 


M. 

F. 

N. 

SING. 

N. 

cariis 

car  a 

car  um,  Dear. 

G. 

carl 

carae 

carl 

D. 

car  5 

carae 

car  6 

Ac. 

car  um 

car  am 

car  um 

V. 

care 

car  a 

carum 

Ab. 

car  5 

car  a 

car  6 

PLUR. 

N. 

car  I 

carae 

car  a 

G. 

car  orum 

car  arum 

car  orum 

D. 

carls 

carls 

car  is 

Ac. 

car  os 

car  as 

car  a 

V. 

cari 

car  ae 

car  a 

Ab 

carls 

carls 

carls 

The  singular  of  adjectives  in  er  is  thus  declined  :  — 

Free.  Black. 

M.  F.  N.  M.  F.  N. 

N.    liber         libera       liber  um          niger        mgra  mgrum 

G.    liber  i       liber  ae    liber  i  nigri        nigrae  nigri 

D.    liber  o      liber  as     liber  o  nigro       nigrae  nigro 

Ac.  liber  um  liber  am  liber  um  nigr  um  nig  ram  nigr  um 

V.   liber         libera      liber  um  niger       nigra  nigrum 

Ab.  liber  o      liber  a      liber  o  niger       nig  ra  nigr  o 

(Plural  like  carus.) 


§  IT  COMPARISON.  15 

The  following  have  the  genitive  singular  in  ius,  and  the  dative 
in  i,  in  all  the  genders  :  — 

alius,  other.  nullus,  no.         ullus,  any  (with  negatives). 

alter,  other  (of  two),     solus,  alone,      uiius,  one. 

neuter,  neither.  totus,  whole,     uter,  which  (of  two). 

II.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  thus  declined :  — 

SINGULAR. 

Wise.                              Short.         N.  Better.              N. 

N.             sapiens                      brevis,  breve  melior,       melius 

G.              sapientis                        brevis  melior  is 

I).              sapienti                          brevi  melior  i 

Ac.  sapientem,  N.  sapiens      brevem,  N.  e  meliorem,  melius 

Ab.           sapiente,  or  i                 brevi  meliore  or  i 

PLURAL. 

N.  Ac.  sapientes,  sapientia     breves,  N.  ia  melior  es,  N.  or  a 
G.             sapieiitium                     brevium  meliorum 

1).  Ab.      sapientibus  brevibus  melioribus 

A  few  adjectives  of  this  declension  have  the  nom.  sing.  masc. 
in  er:  as,  M.  acer,  F.  acris,  N.  acre,  keen.  Otherwise  they  are 
declined  like  brevis. 

Adjectives  of  one  termination  include  those  in  ns,  with  a  few 
others  :  as,  vetiis,  old ;  par,  equal ;  felix,  fortunate.  They  all  have 
two  forms  in  the  accusative  singular,  and  in  the  nom.  ace.  and  voc. 
plural :  as,  parem,  par  ;  pares,  paria. 

17.     COMPARISON. 

I.  The  Comparative  degree  adds  ior,  ius  to  the  stem,  and  is 
declined  as  melior  ;  the  Superlative  adds  issimus,  a,  urn, 
and  is  declined  as  cams.  Thus  :  — 

car  us,  dear;  car  ior,  dearer ;  car  issimus,  dearest. 
Adjectives  in  er  form   the  superlative  by  adding  rimus 
to  the  nominative  :  as, 
niger,  black ;  nigrior,  blacker ;  nigerrimus,  blackest. 

Six  adjectives,  facilis,  difficilis,  easy,  hard;  slmllis,  dissl- 
milis,  like,  unlike :  gracilis,  slender ;  humilis,  low,  form  the 
superlative  by  adding  llmus  to  the  stem :  as,  facillimus. 


16  COMPARISON.  §  17 

Compounds  ending  in  dlcus,  saying,  flcus,  doing,  and 
volus,  willing,  are  compared  from  the  corresponding  partici- 
ples in  us  !  as, 

maledicus,  slanderous ;  male  die  entior,  maledicentissimus. 

maleficus,  mischievous ;  maleficentior,  maleficentissimus. 

malevolus,  spiteful ;  malevolentior,  malevolentissimus. 

Adjectives  in  US  preceded  by  a  vowel,  are  generally  com- 
pared by  means  of  the  adverbs  magis,  more,  and  maxime, 
most :  as, 
idoneus,  y££;  magis  idoneus,  maxime  idoneus. 

II.  The  following  are  compared  irregularly  :  — 
bonus,  mSlior,  optimus,  good,  better,  best. 
malus,  pejor,  pessimus,  bad,  worse,  worst. 
magnus,  major,  maximus,  great,  greater,  greatest. 
parvus,  minor,  minimus,  small,  less,  least. 
multum,  plus,  (N.)  plurimum,  much,  more,  most. 
multi,  plures,  plurimi,  many,  more,  most. 
nequam  (indecl.),  nequior,  nequissimus,  worthless. 
frugi  (indecl.),  frugalior,  frugalissimus,  discreet. 

III.  The  following  comparatives  and  superlatives,  denot- 
ing order  in  place  or  time,  are  formed  from  certain  prepo- 
sitions :  — 

[citra,  this  side']  cifcerior,  citimus,  nearer,  nearest. 

[extra,  outside']  exterior,  extremus,  outer,  outmost. 

[infra,  below]  inferior,  infimus  or  imus,  lower,  lowest. 

[intra,  witliin~\  interior,  intimus,  inner,  inmost. 

[post,  after]  posterior,  postremus  or  postumus,  latter,  last. 

[prae,  befo re\  prior,  primus,  former,  first. 

[prope,  near]  propior,  proximus,  nearer,  next. 

[supra,  above]  superior,  supremus  or  summus,  Jiigher,  JiigJiest. 

[ultra,  beyond]  ulterior,  ultimus,  farther,  farthest . 

The  positives  inferus,  exterus,  &c.,  are  rarely  used  as  adjec- 
tives. But  the  plurals  exteri,  foreigners;  posteri,  posterity; 
superi,  the  lieavenly  gods,  and  inferi,  those  beloio,  are  common. 

From  the  nouns  juvenis,  youth,  senex,  old  man,  are  formed 
the  comparatives  junior,  younger,  senior,  older.  For  the  super- 


§  17  COMPAEISON.  17 

lative  the  phrase  minimus  or  maximus  natu  is  used,  the  noun 
natu  being  often  understood  :  as, 

maximus  fratrum,  the  eldest  of  the  brothers. 

senior  fratrum  would  mean  the  elder  of  the  two. 

IV.  Some  adjectives  want  the  positive  :  as, 
deterior,  deterrirnus,  worse,  worst. 

ocior,  ocissimus,  swifter,  swiftest. 

potior,  potissimus,  more,  and  most  preferable. 

Some  want  the  comparative  :  as, 

falsus,  falsissimus,y«?se,  most  false. 

inclitus  (inclutus),  iiiclitissimus,/b'77zcw.s. 

novus,  novissimus,  new,  newest  or  last  (as  in  novissimum 
agmen,  the  rear-guard) . 

pauper,  pauperrimus,  poor. 

sacer,  sacerrimus,  sacred. 

vetus,  veterrimus,  old. 
Some  want  the  superlative  :  as, 

alacer,  alacrior,  eager. 

ingens,  ingentior,  huge. 

opimus,  opimior,  rich. 

V.  1.  The  Comparative  often  denotes  a  considerable  or 
excessive  degree  of  a  quality :    as,  brevior,   rather   short ; 
audacior,  too  bold.     It  is  used  instead  of  the   superlative 
where  only  two  are  spoken  of:    as, 

melior  imperatorum,  the  best  of  the  (tivo)  commanders. 

2.  The  comparative  takes  the  ablative,  or  qTJL&m,than:  as, 
tribus  unciis   altior  est  fratre   (or  quam  frater),  he  is  three 

inches  tatter  than  his  brother.     (See  §  54,  v.) 

3.  Comparison  between  adjectives  is  expressed  by  com- 
paratives with  quam :  as, 

latius  quam  altius  est  fiumen,  the  stream  is  rather  broad  than  deep. 

4.  The  Superlative  (of  eminence)    often   denotes  a  very 
high  degree  of  a  quality  :    as,  maximus  numerus,  a  very 
great  number. 

5.  The  superlative  with  quam  indicates  the  very  highest 
degree  of  a  quality  :  as,  quam  plurimi,  as  many  as  possible. 


18 


NUMERALS. 


18.     NUMERALS. 
I.   CARDINAL  AND  ORDINAL. 


1. 

unus,  una,  unum 

primus  a  vim,  first 

I. 

2. 

du6,  duae,  duo 

secundus,  alter,  second            II. 

3. 

tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

III. 

4. 

quattudr 

quartus,  fourth 

IV. 

5. 

quinque 

quintus 

V. 

6. 

sex 

sextus 

VI. 

7. 

septem 

septimus 

VII. 

8. 

octo 

octavus 

VIII. 

9. 

novem 

nonus 

IX. 

10. 

decem 

decimus 

X. 

11. 

undecim 

undecimus 

XI. 

12. 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

XII. 

13. 

tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

XIII. 

14. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

XIV. 

15. 

quindecim 

quintus  decimus 

XV. 

16. 

sedecim 

sextus  decimus 

XVI. 

17. 

septendecim 

septimus  decimus 

XVII. 

18. 

duodeviginti 

duodevicesimus 

XVIII. 

19. 

undeviginti 

uiidevicesimus 

XIX. 

20. 

viginti 

vicesimus 

XX. 

30. 

triginta 

tricesimus 

XXX. 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

XL. 

50. 

quiiiquaginta 

quinquagesimus 

X  or  L. 

60. 

sexagiiita 

sexagesimus 

LX. 

70. 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

LXX. 

80. 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

LXXX. 

90. 

noiiaginta 

noiiagesimus 

XC. 

100. 

centum 

centesimus 

C. 

200. 

diicenti,  ae,  a 

diicentesimus 

CC. 

300. 

trecenti 

trecentesimus 

ccc. 

400. 

quadringenti 

quadringeiitesimus 

cccc. 

500. 

quingenti 

quingentesimus 

ID,  or  D. 

600. 

sexcenti 

sexceiitesimus 

DC. 

700. 

septingenti 

septiiigentesimus 

DCC. 

800. 

octiiigenti 

octiiigentesimus 

DCCC. 

900. 

nongenti 

nongeiitesimus 

DCCCC. 

1000. 

mille 

millesimus 

CIO,  or  M. 

10,000. 

decem  mllia 

decies  millesimus 

CCIOO. 

§18 


NUMERALS. 


19 


1.  Unus  a  um  has  genitive  umus,  dative  uni  (§  16,  I.). 

2.  Duo  (also  ambo,  both)  is  thus  declined :  — 


M. 

F. 

N. 

Nom. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum 

D.  Ab. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

Ac. 

duos,  duo 

duas 

duo 

3.  Tres  is  declined  regularly,  like  the  plural  of  brevis  (§  16). 
The  other  cardinal  numbers  up  to  centum  (100)  are  indeclinable. 
Mille  is  indeclinable  as  an  adjective ;  but  when  several  thousands 
are  spoken  of,  the  noun  milia  is  used,  declined  like  the  plural  of 
mare  (§  11,  I.),  the  noun   described  being  put  in  the  genitive 
plural :  as,  cum  decem  milibus  militum,  with  ten  thousand  men. 

4.  The  numeral   adverbs   are :    semel,  once ;   bis,  twice ;  ter, 
thrice  ;  qua.tei,four  times.    Those  of  higher  numbers  end  in  iens 
or  ies:  as,  quinquiens  (or  quinquies),  decies,  milies,  &c. 


II.     DISTRIBUTIVE. 


1 .  singuli 

2.  bin! 

3.  terni 

4.  quaterni 

5.  qumi 

6.  seni 

7.  septeni 

8.  octoiii 

9.  noveni 

10.  deni 

11.  undent 


12.  duodeni 

13.  terni  deni,  &c. 
20.  viceni 

30.  triceni 

40.  quadrageni 

50.  quinquageni 

60.  sexageni 

70.  septuageni 

80.  octogeni 

90.  nonageni 

100.  centeni 


200. 

300. 

400. 

500. 

600. 

700. 

800. 

900. 

1000. 

2000. 

10,000. 


duceni 

treceni 

quadriiigeni 

quingeni 

sesceni 

septingem 

octingeni 

nongeni 

milleni 

bis  milleni 

decies  milleni 


Distributives  are  used,  — 


1.  As  in  the  phrase  singulas  binis  navibus  obiciebant,  tliey 
matcJied  the  sliips  one  against  every  two.  —  Caes.  B.C.,  I.  58. 

2.  Instead  of  cardinals,  when  the  noun  is  plural  in  form  but 
singular  in  meaning :  as,  bina  castra,  two  camps :  (duo  castra 
would  mean  two  forts)  :  but  una  castra,  one  camp. 

3.  In  multiplication  :  as,  bis  bma,  twice  two ;  quater  septenis 
diebus ;  i.  e.,  in  four  weeks. 


l!U  PRONOUNS.  —  PERSONAL   AND    REFLECTIVE.  §  19 


PRONOUNS. 


19.     PERSONAL  AND  REFLECTIVE. 

I.  The  personal  pronouns  ego,  I,  and  tu,  tkoUj  are  thus 
declined :  — 


FIRST   PERSON.  SECOND   PERSON. 


I. 

tJiou  (you.) 

SING.  N. 

ego 

tu 

G. 

mei 

tiii 

D. 

mini  (mi) 

tibi 

Ac.  me  te 

Ab.  me  te 

PLUR.  N.  Ac.  nos  vos 

p  J  nostrum  ^  vestrum  (vostrum) 

\  nostri  \  vestri  (vostri) 
D.  Ab.              nobis  vobis 

II.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons 
are  used  also  reflectively  :  as, 

ipse  te  laudas,  you  praise  yourself. 

The  reflective  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  himself,  herself, 
themselves,  is  thus  declined  :  — 

G.  sui  D.  sibi  Ac.  and  Ab.  se,  or  sese 

It  regularly  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

III.  The  genitives  nostrum,  vestrum,  are  used  partitive- 
ly :  as,  unusquisque  vestrum,  each  one  of  you  ;  mei,  tui,  sui, 
nostri  and  vestri  are  used  objectively :  as, 

mem6r  sis  nostri,  be  mindful  of  us. 


§  20  PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVE.  21 

For  the  genitive  of  possession,  the  adjective  pronouns 
meus  (voc.  masc.  mi),  tuus,  suns,  noster,  vester,  are  always 
used,  declined  as  in  §  1C,  I. :  as,  mi  fili,  my  son  ;  cum  amicis 
meis,  with  liny  friends. 

They  agree  with  genitives  in  such  phrases  as  tuam  ipsius 
patriam  prodidisti,  you  have  betrayed  your  oicn  fatherland ;  suo 
soiius  periculo,  at  his  own  peril  only.  —  Cic.  Cat.,  IV.  11. 

The  preposition  cum,  with,  is  joined  enclitically  with  the  ab- 
lative of  the  personal  pronouns  :  thus, 
nobiscum  ambulat,  he  is  walking  with  us. 

20.     DEMONSTRATIVE. 

I.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  hie,  this ;  is,  iste,  ille, 
that  ;  and  ipse,  self,  are  thus  declined  :  — 


SINGULAR. 

N. 

hie 

haec 

hoc 

is 

ea 

id 

G. 

hujus 

ejus 

D. 

huic 

ei 

Ac. 

hunc 

hanc 

hoc 

eum 

eam 

id 

Ab. 

hoc 

hac 

hoc 

eo 

ea 

eo 

PLURAL. 

N. 

hi 

hae 

haec 

ii  (ei) 

eae 

ea 

G.  horum  harum  horum  eorum  earuni  eorum 

D.  Ab.  his  els  or  iis 

Ac.         hos        has        haec  eos         eas         ea 


Nom.    iste     ista      istud          Gen.  istms  Dat.  isti 

,,       ille      ilia       illud              „  illius  „     illi 

,,       ipse     ipsa      ipsum           ,,  ipsius  ,,     ipsi 
Remainder  as  carus,  in  §  16,  I. 

II.  Hie  is  sometimes  called  the  demonstrative  of  the  first 
person ;  iste  (used  especially  in  reference  to  the  person  spoken 
to,  and  frequently  implying  contempt),  the  demonstrative  of  the 
second  person ;  ille  (referring  to  more  remote  objects,  and  used 
especially  of  those  celebrated  or  well  known),  the  demonstrative 
of  the  third  person.  Ille  and  hie  are  often  used  as  "  the  former" 
and  "  the  latter."  Hie,  or  hie  homo,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to 
ego,  /:  as,  tu  si  hie  sis,  if  you  were  I.  —  Ter.  Andr.  310. 


22  PRONOUNS.  —  RELATIVE.  §  21 

Is  is  used  especially  in  reference  to  something  just  mentioned, 
or  as  antecedent  to  the  relative  qui,  ivho.  It  is  used  oftener  than 
the  other  demonstratives  as  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  per- 
son, and  is  sometimes  nearly  equivalent  to  the  article  a  or  the :  as, 
eum  quern  esse  hostem  comperisti,  one  whom  you  have  found 

to  be  a  public  enemy.  —  Cic.  Cat.  I.  11. 
habetis  eum  consulem  qui  .  . .  non  dubitet,  you  have  a  consul 

who  will  not  hesitate.  —  Id.  IV.  11. 

Ipse,  self,  the  intensive  pronoun,  is  frequently  joined  with 
another  pronoun :  as,  nos  ipsi,  or  nosmetipsi,  we  ourselves ;  or 
it  may  be  used  independently  in  either  person :  as,  ipsi  adestis, 
you  are  yourselves  present.  Often  it  may  be  translated  very  :  as, 
ipsi  colles  clamant,  the  very  hills  cry  out. 

Idem,  eadem,  idem,  the  same,  is  declined  like  is ;  m  being 
generally  changed  to  n  before  d  in  the  accusative ;  as,  eundem. 

21.     RELATIVE. 
I.  The  relative  pronoun  qui,  who,  is  thus  declined :  — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

N.        qui          quae     quod  qui  quae          quae  (qua) 

cujus  (quoius)  quorum  quarum    quorum 
D.                 cui      (quoi)  quibus  or  quis 

Ac.       quern     quam  quod  quos        quas          quae 
Ab.       quo         qua       quo  quibus 

II.    Qui,  who,  is  also  used  as  an  interrogative ;  but  when  used 
substantively,  the  nominative  singular  is  quis  quae  quid :  as, 
quis  adest?  who  is  here?  quid  ais?  what  do  you  say1? 

As  an  adjective,  qui  is  sometimes,  and  quod  always,  used :  as, 
qui  (or  quis)  homo  est?  what  man  is  it? 
quod  bellum  turn  gerebatur  ?  what  war  was  then  waging? 

Quantus,  how  great;  qualis,  of  what  kind;  quot,  how  many, 
and  the  like,  are  also  used  both  as  relative  and  interrogative, 
corresponding  to  tantus,  so  great ;  talis,  such ;  tot,  so  many. 

The  relative  is   often  used  in  Latin  where  we  must  use  the 
demonstrative  in  English :    as, 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so. 

The  preposition  cum,  irilh,  is  affixed  to  the  ablative  of  qui,  as 
to  the  personal  pronouns  :  as,  quocum,  quibuscum,  with  whow. 


§22  CORRELATIVES.  23 

The  conjunction  ac,  atque,  is  often  used  as  a  relative,  in  such 
phrases  as,  — 

pro  eo  ac  mereor,  according  to  what  I  deserve.  — Cic. 
alicer  ac  nos  vellemus,   different  from  what  we  would.  —  Id. 

III.  The  indefinite  relative  quicumque,  whoever,  is  declined 
like  qui.  So  quisquam,  quivis,  quilibet,  any  one;  quisque, 
each  ;  quidam,  a  certain  one. 

QuisquiB,  whoever,  rarely  occurs  except  in  the  forms  quisquis 
quidquid  (quicquid),  and  quoquo. 

Aliquis,  some  one ;  siquis,  if  any ;  riequis,  lest  any ;  ecquis 
nuniquis,  whether  any,  are  like  quis,  but  have  qua  for  quae :  as, 
siqua  bella  gerenda  erunt,  if  any  wars  shall  have  to  be  waged. 

22.     CORRELATIVES. 

1.  These  are  demonstrative,  relative,  interrogative,  and  in- 
definite ;  the  demonstratives  generally  commence  with  t  or 
i ;  the  relatives   and   interrogatives   (which  are  alike)  with 
qu ;  the  indefinites  with  all :  as, 

tantus,  50  great ;  quantus,  as  or  how  great ;  aliquantus,  of  some 

size. 

ibi,  there  ;  (hie,  istic,  illic) ;  ubi,  where ;  alicubi,  somewhere. 
eo,  thither ;  (hue,  illuc)  ;  quo,  whither ;  aliquo,  to  some  place. 
inde,  thence ;  (hinc,  illinc)  ;  unde,  whence  ;    aliunde,  from  some 

place. 
turn,  then;   quum  (quom,  or  cum),  when;  quando?  when%  ali- 

quando,  at  some  time,  or  at  length. 
tot,  so  many ;  quot,  as  or  how  many ;  aliquot,  a  number  of. 

These  last  are  indeclinable  :  as, 

per  tot   annos,  tot  proeliis,  tot   irnperatores,  so   many  com- 
manders, for  so  many  years,  in  so  many  battles.  —  Cic. 

2.  Alter  .  .  .  alter  (where  only , two  are  spoken  of),  and 
alius  .  .  .  alius,  one  .  .  .  another,  are  used  as  correlatives  in 
such  phrases  as  — 

alter  arat,  alter  sertt,  one  ploughs,  the  other  sows. 
alii  me  laudant,  alii  culpant,  some  praise  me,  others  Name. 
alius  aliiid  amat,  one  likes  one  thing,  and  one  another. 
hi  fratres  inter  se  amant  alter  alterum,  these  brothers  love  one 
another. 


24  VERBS. STRUCTURE. MOODS.  §§  23,  24 


VERBS. 


23,     STRUCTURE. 

1.  Latin  verbs  have  two  VOICES,  viz.  Active  and  Passive ; 
—  four  MOODS,  viz.  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  In- 
finitive;—  four  PARTICIPLES,  viz.  the  Present  arid  Future 
Active,  the  Perfect  Passive,  and  the  Gerundive ;  —  two  VER- 
BAL NOUNS,  viz.  the  Gerund  and  the  Supine;  —  six  TENSES, 
viz.  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future,  and  Fu- 
ture Perfect;  —  six  PERSONS,  three  in  the  singular  and  three 
in  the  plural. 

2.  The  future  and  future  perfect  are  wanting  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood  ;  and  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future  perfect 
in  the  passive  voice :  their  places  being  supplied  by  partici-  - 
pies,  combined  with  corresponding  tenses  of  the  verb  esse, 
to  be. 

3.  The  passive  voice  has  often  a  reflective  meaning :  as, 
cingitur  gladium,  lie  girds  on  his  (owii)  sword. 

velamur  capita,  we  veil  our  heads.  — Yirg.  2En.  III.  545. 

24,     MOODS. 

I.  The  Indicative  Mood  is  used  for  direct  assertion  or 
interrogation. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  used  for  dependent  proposi- 
tions and  indirect  questions.     It  is  generally  translated  by 
the  English  indicative,  especially  when  preceded  by  particles 
expressing  condition  or  result ;  sometimes  by  the  potential, 
may,  might,  or  would,  especially  after  particles  expressing 
motive  or  purpose. 


§24  MOODS.  25 

Examples  of  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  dependent  con- 
structions are  as  follows  :  — 

nescio  quid  scribam,  I  know  not  what  to  write.     (§  67,  i.  1.) 

nescio  quid  scribas,  /  know  not  what  you  are  writing. 

ut  scribam,  non  est  satis,  though  I  write,  it  is  not  enough.  (§  61,  2.) 

sine  scribam,  let  me  write.     (§  64,  iv.) 

licet  scribas,  you  may  write. 

cave  scribas,  do  not  write.     (§  58,  in.) 

non  is  sum  qui  scribam,  I  am  not  the  one  to  write.     (§  65,  i.) 

vereor  ne  scribat,  I  fear  he  will  write.     (§  64,  in.) 

vereor  ut  scribat,  I  fear  he  will  not  write. 

sunt  qui  piitent,  there  are  some  who  think.   (§  65,  iv.  2.) 

nemo  est  quin  putet,  there  is  none  but  thinks. 

sedet  (sedebat)  illic,  tamquam   sciibat  (scriberet),  he  sits 

{sat)  yonder  as  if  he  were  writing.     (§  61,  i.) 
si  haec  sciret,  non  veniret,  if  he  knew  this,  he  would  not  come. 
si  haec  cognoscat,  non  veniat,  if  he  should  find  this  out,  he 

would  not  come.     (§65,  iv.  1.) 
nisi  haec  cognovisset,  non  venisset,  if  he  had  not  found  this 

out,  he  would  not  have  come.     (§  65,  iv.  2.) 
venit  ut  videret,  he  came  to  see.     (§  64,  i.) 
evenit  ut  videret,  it  turned  out  that  he  saw.     (§  70,  n.) 
tarn  pr6pe  erat  ut  videret,  he  was  so  near  as  to  see.     (§  65,  i.) 
quis  non  gaudeat  haec  videns  ?  who  would  not  be  glad  to  see 

this?     (§60,3.) 
cum  domum  rediisset,  mortuus  est,  when  he  had  returned  home, 

he  died.     (§  62,  i.) 

An  Indirect  Question  is  an  assertion  in  which  a  question  is  im- 
plied, without  being  expressed  :  thus  — 

quis  adest?  wlio  is  herel  is  a  direct  question;  but 

die  mini  quis  adsit,  tell  me  who  is  frrrr,  n-aariHir™!  question. 


III.  1.  The  Imperative  present  is  used  as  in  English  ;  but 
its  place  is  often  supplied  (always  in  the  first  person)  by  the 
present  or  perfect  subjunctive  :  as, 

ne  crede  cblori,  do  not  trust  complexion.     (§  58,  in.) 
dum  vivimus  vivamus,  iMle  we  live  let  us  live. 

Xot  with  the  Imperative  is  ne  ;  and  nor,  neve. 

2  ---^ 


26  PARTICIPLES.  §25 

2.  The  future  is  used  especially  for  edicts  and  laws :  as, 
regii    imperil   duo   sunto,  iique   consules   appellantor,  there 

shall  be  two  of  kingly  authority,  and  they  shall  be  called 

consuls.  —  Cic.  Leg.  ill.  3. 
homfciem  mortuuxn  in  urbe  ne  sepelito  neve  urito,  a  dead  man 

in  the  city  thou  shall  not  bury  nor  burn.  — xii.  Tab.  in  Cic. 

IV.  The  Infinitive  is  used —  1.  As  the  Object  of  a  Verb :  as, 
audire  non  possum,  /  cannot  hear. 

2.  With  a  Subject- Accusative,  especially  after  Verbs  of 
knowing,  thinking,  and  telling :  as, 

dixit  me  adesse,  he  said  that  I  was  present. 

3.  As  an  Indeclinable  Noun  (with  or  without  a  subject- 
accusative),  when  it    is  often  rendered  in  English    by  the 
participial  noun:  as, 

vivere  est  cogitare,  living  is  thinking. 

miseret  me  te  esse  pauperem,  it  grieves  me  that  you  are  poor. 

25.     PARTICIPLES. 

I.  The  Present  Participle  ends  in  ns  (corresponding  to  our 
participle  in  ing),  and  is  declined  like  sapiens,  §  16,  II. 

When  used  as  an  adjective,  the  ablative  singular  ends  in  i : 
as, 

florenti  urbe  potitur,  he  takes  a  flourishing  city  ;  but, 
florente  urbe,  while  the  city  flourished. 

The  Future  Active  Participle  (generally  expressing  pur- 
pose) ends  in  urns.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  ends 
in  ns,  and  the  Gerundive  (sometimes  called  the  Future  Passive 
Participle),  in  dns ;  they  are  declined  like  earns  (§16,  i.). 

The  Gerundive  either  (1)  has  the  meaning  of  ought  or 
must :  as,  delenda  est  Karthago,  Carthage  must  be  destroyed; 
or  (2)  is  used  to  govern  the  noun  it  agrees  with :  as,  Kartha- 
glnis  delendae  cansa,  for  the  sake  of  destroying  Carthage. 

II  The  use  of  these  participles  is  seen  in  the  following 
examples  :  — 


§26  GERUND    AND    SUPINE.  27 

te  id  dicentem  audivi,  /  heard  you  say  that. 

sapientia  Dei  omnia  giibernantis,  the  wisdom   of   God,  who 

governs  all. 

Curio  ad  focum  sedenti,  to  Curius  as  he  sat  by  the  fire. 
Roma  prbficiscens  Neapoli  diu  manebat,  on  his  way  from 

Rome  he  staid  a  good  while  at  Naples. 
Roma  profectus  Athenas  venit,  he  set  out  from  Rome  and  came 

to  Athens. 
Romam  venit  ludos  spectaturus,  or,  ad  spectandos  ludos, 

he  came  to  Rome  to  see  the  games. 

bona  peto  semper  duratura,  /  seek  goods  that  will  last  forever. 
reluctante  natura,  invitus  labor  est,  if  nature  refuses,  toil  is  vain. 
anno  post  exactos  reges  decimo,  ab  urbe  condita  ducente- 

simo  quinquagesimo  quarto,  the  tenth  year  after  the  kings'* 

banishment,  and  the  254^  from  the  founding  of  the  city. 

And  the  Perfect  Participle  in  English  must  often  be  ren- 
dered by  other  constructions  in  Latin  :  as, 
cum  Romam  rediisset,  in  forum  venit,  having  returned  to  Rome, 

he  came  into  the  forum. 
equitatu  praemisso,  subsequebatur  omnibus  copiis,  having 

sent  forward  the  cavalry,  he  followed  close  with  all  his 

forces.  — C&s.  E.G.  II.  19. 

26,     GERUND  AND  SUPINE. 

I.  The  Gerund  is  inflected  as  a  Neuter  Noun  of  the  Second 
Declension.     Its  use  is  as  follows  :  — 

N.     scribendum  est  mihi,  I  have  to  write. 

G.     labor  scribendi,  the  task  of  writing. 

D.     utile  scribendo,  serviceable  for  writing. 

Ac.  inter  scribendum,  while  writing. 

Ab.  scribendo  respondit,  he  answered  by  writing. 

But  with  a  direct  object,  the  Gerundive  is  usually  employed: 
as, 

N.     scribenda  est  mihi  epistbla,  /  have  to  write  a  letter. 

G.     labor  scribendae  epistSlae,  the  task  of  writing  a  letter. 

This  is  the  regular  way  in  Latin  of  expressing  ought  or 
must. 


28  TENSES.  §  27 

II.  The  Former  Supine  is  in  form  the  accusative,  and  the 
Latter  Supine  the  ablative,  of  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth 
declension. 

The  Former  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion,  especially  in 
dialogue  or  familiar  speech :  as,  hue  venit  consultum,  he 
has  come  hither  to  consult ;  the  Latter  after  certain  adjectives  : 
as,  horrlblle  dictu,  shocking  to  tell.  The  latter  is  found  only 
in  a  few  verbs. 

27.     TENSES. 

I.  The  Present  tense  expresses  an  action  or  state  as  now 
continuing;    as,  VOCO,   I  am  calling;    VOCOr,   I  am  \being~\ 
called,  i.  e.  some  one  is  now  calling  me. 

It  is  sometimes  used,  as  in  English,  to  give  life  to  narra- 
tive :  as,  Caesar  convocat  suos,  Ccesar  summons  his  men ; 
and  may  sometimes  be  rendered  by  the  Perfect  in  English : 
as,  jamdiu  te  VOCO,  I  have  been  long  calling  you. 

II.  The  Imperfect  is  used  to  tell  a  condition  of  things 
formerly  existing.     Hence  it  is  employed  — 

1.  In  Descriptions  :  as,  erant  omnmo  itinera  duo  .  .  .  mons 
altissimus  impendebat,  there  were  in  all  two  ways  .  .   .  a  very 
high  mountain  overhung. — Caes.  E.G.  I.  6. 

2.  To   relate  a  Continued   or  Repeated  Action:    as,  saepS 
dicebat,  he  would  often  say  ;  mirabar,  I  used  to  wonder. 

3.  To  state  the  Circumstances  attending  an  action  or  event: 
as,  dum  haec  gerebantur,  while  this  was  going  on. 

III.  The  Perfect  is  used  to  tell  an  action  or  event  occur- 
ring at  a  given  time  in  the  past.     Hence  it  is  employed  — 

1.  In  Narration  (perfect  aorist,  indefinite,  or  historical)  :  as, 
veni,  vidi,  vici,  /  came,  saw,  conquered. 

2.  After  ut,  ttbi,  posteaquam    or  postquam,  when,  (with  a 
leading  verb  in  a  past  tense),  as  equivalent  to  the  pluperfect:  as, 
ubi  haec  dixit,  abiit,  when  he  had  said  this,  he  went  away. 

3.  It  is  also  used  to  relate  a  past  act  or  state  in  reference  to 
the  present  time  (perfect  definite  or  relative)  :  as, 

pater  te  jam  vocavit,  your  father  has  already  called  you. 


§  27  TENSES.  29 

4.  In  the  subjunctive,  it  usually  follows  a  leading  verb  in  the 
present ;  as, 

nescio  utrum  Xta  evengrit  necne,  1  don't  know  whether  it  hap- 
pened (or  has  happened)  so  or  not. 

In  Latin,  and  in  all  languages  derived  from  Latin,  there  are 
two  past  tenses,  —  the  Perfect,  or  Preterite,  which  is  used  for 
narration,  to  tell  the  main  fact,  and  the  Imperfect,  which  is  used 
for  description,  or  to  state  the  attending  circumstances :  as, 
dum  CicSro  domi  manebat,  Caesar  interfectus  est,  while  Cicero 
staid  at  home,  Ccesar  was  slain. 

The  Gothic  languages,  including  English,  have  only  one  Past 
tense. 

IV.  The   Future  and  Future  Perfect  are  used,  though 
with  greater  accuracy,  like  the  corresponding  tenses  in  Eng- 
lish :  as, 

cum  audivero,  scribam,  when  I  [shall]  have  heard,  1  will  write. 

V.  Tenses  are  distributed  in  these  two  classes,  — 

1.  PRIMARY,  including  Present,  Perfect  [Definite] ,  and  Future. 

2.  SECONDARY,  including  Imperfect,  Perfect  [Historical],  and 
Pluperfect. 

VI.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect,  of  the 
Active  Voice,  are  derived  from  a  stem  (wanting  in  the  Pass- 
ive), which  is  usually  formed  by  adding  V  [u]  or  s,  with  or 
without  a  connecting  vowel,  to  the  Stem  of  the  Present;  this 
is  called  the  Second  or  Perfect  Stem :  as, 

voc  o,  vocav  i ;  —  die  o,  dix  i. 

In  the  Passive,  these  tenses  are  supplied  by  adding  the 
corresponding  tenses  of  esse,  to  be,  to  the  Perfect  Participle. 
This  participle  is  derived  from  the  third  or  Supine  stem, 
which  is  usually  formed  by  adding  t,  with  or  without  a  con- 
necting vowel,  to  the  present  stem :  as, 

vocati  sumus,  we  have  been  called. 

haec  dicta  erunt,  this  will  have  been  said. 

The  Perfect  (definite),  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect 
are  called  the  tenses  of  Completed  Action. 


30  PERSONAL   ENDINGS.  —  ESSE.  §§28,29 

28.     PERSONAL  ENDINGS. 
The  terminations  of  the  persons  are  as  follows  :  — 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

S.   1.  m  [o,  i]     P.  1.  mus          S.   1.  r         P.  1.  mur 

2.  s   [ti]  2.  tis  2.  ris,re       2.  mini 

3.  t  3.  nt  3.  tur  3.  ntur 

All  Latin  words  in  common  use,  ending  in  t,  —  except  at,  but ; 
et,  and;  ut,  that;  caput,  head;  dumtaxat,  however;  licet,  al- 
though, and  Indefinites  in  -libet,  —  are  in  the  third  person  of 
.verbs ;  all  ending  in  nt  are  in  the  third  person  plural. 

29.     ESSE. 

T.  The  Substantive  Verb  esse,  to  be,  is  thus  inflected.  It 
has  neither  Gerund  nor.  Supine,  and  only  the  Future  Par- 
ticiple :  — 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS:  sum,  lam;  esse,  to  be;  fui,  /  have  been; 
futurus,  about  to  be :  —  second  stem,  fu ;  third  stem,  fut. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT.    7  am. 
SING.  1.  sum,  7  am.  sim 

2.  es,  thou  art  (you  are).       sis 

3.  est,  he  (she,  it)  is.  sit 

PLUR.  1 .  sumus,  we  are.  simus 

2.  estls,  yon  are.  sitis 

3.  sunt,  they  are.  sint 

IMPERFECT.  I  was. 

SING.  1.  eram  essem  forem 

2.  eras  esses  feres 

3.  grat  esset  foret 

PLUR.  1.  eram  us  essemus 

2.  eratis  essetis 

3.  grant  essent  forent 


§29 


ESSE. 


31 


FUTURE.    /  shall  be. 


SING.  1.  gro 

2.  erls 

3.  grit 


futurus  sim 
futurus  sis 
futurus  sit 


PLUR.  1.  grimus  futuri  simus 

2.  eritis  futuri  sitis 

3.  grunt  futuri  sint 

PERFECT.  /  was,  or  have  been. 

SING.  1.  ful  fuerim 

2.  fuisti  fueris 

3.  fuft  fuerit 

PLUR.  1.  fulmus  fuerimus 

2.  fuistis  fueritis 

3.  fuerunt  or  fuere  fugrint 

PLUPERFECT.     /  had  been. 

SING.  1.  fueram  fuissem 

2.  fueras  fuisses 

3.  fuerat  fuisset 


PLUR.  1.  fueramus 

2.  fueratis 

3.  fugrant 


fuissemus 

fuissetis 

fuissent 


FUTURE  PERFECT.  I  shall  have  been. 
SING.  1.  fuero  fuerim 

2.  fueris  fueris 

3.  fuerit  fuerit 


PLUR.  1.  fuerlmus 

2.  fueritis 

3.  fuerint 


fuerimus 

fueritis 

fuerint 


IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT.     3s,  be  thou :      este,  be  ye. 
FUTURE,      esto,  tliou  shalt  be,  he  sliall  be. 

estote,  ye  shall  be :    sunto,  they  shall  be. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT,     esse,  to  be. 

PERFECT,     fuisse,  to  have  been. 

FUTURE,      fbre  or  futurus  esse,  to  be  about  to  be. 


32  CONJUGATION.  §  30 

II.  Abesse,  to  be  absent,  and  &desse,  to  be  present,  are  in- 
flected in  the  same  way  with  esse.     The  Present  Participle 
of  abesse  is  absens ;  praesens  is  used  as  the  participle  of 
adesse.     The  Imperative  is  wanting  in  both. 

III.  Posse,  to  be  able  (potls  esse),  is  thus  conjugated :  - 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT,  can.        possum  possim 

potes  possis 

potest  possit 

possumus  possimus 

potestis  possitis 

possunt  possint 

IMPERFECT,  could,  poteram.  possem 

FUTURE.  potero 

PERFECT.  potui  potuSrim 

PLUPERFECT,          potueram  potuissem 

PUT.  PERFECT.       potuero 

INFIN.          PRES.  posse  PERF.  potuisse 

PARTICIPLE.  potens,  able. 

IV.  Prodesse,  to  help  (pro  esse),  is  conjugated  like  sum, 
inserting  d  where  followed  by  e  :  as, 

prosum,  prodes,  prodest,  prosiimus,  prodestis,  prosunt 

30.     CONJUGATION. 

I.  Verbs  have  four  regular  Conjugations,  distinguished  by 
the  connecting  vowel  of  the  Present  Infinitive :  these  are  — 

1.  a:  as,  vocare,  to  call. 

2.  e :  as,  mon  e  re,  to  warn. 

3.  e :  as,  mitt  e  re,  to  send. 

4.  I :  as,  and  I  re,  to  hear. 

II.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  Stems  are  regularly  formed  by 
adding  to  the  Present  Stem,  in  the  several  conjugations,  — 

(1.)  av,  at:  as,  vSco  vocare  vocavi   vocatum  call. 

(2.)  ev,  et:  as,  deleo  delere  delevi    deletum  wipe  out. 

(3.)  s,     t:     as,  carpo  carpere  carpsi     carptum  pluck. 

(4.)  iv,  It:   as,  audio  audire  audlvi    auditum  hear. 


§30  CONJUGATION.  33 

In  the  second  conjugation  ev,  et,    are   usually   modified 
into  u,  It :  as, 
moneo,  monere,  moiiui,  monitum,  warn. 

III.  The  stem  of  the  third  conjugation  usually  ends  in  a 
consonant ;  this  is  combined  with  s  in  the  same  way  as  in 
nouns  (§  11,  in.  1,  2,  3)  :  as, 

rego,  regere,  rexi,  rectum,  rule. 

Vowel-stems  of  the  third  conjugation  end  in  I  or  u.  In 
the  former,  the  stem  is  usually  lengthened  in  the  perfect :  as, 
fiigio,  fugere,  fugi,  fugitum,  flee. 

In  these  verbs  the  i  is  dropped  when  it  would  be  followed  by 
e  or  I :  as, 

fugls,  fugit,  fuge're,  fuge'rem; 

But  it  is  retained  before  e  :  as  in  fugiebam  ;  also,  fugiet. 
A  stem  ending  in  u  (v),  is  unchanged  in  the  Perfect :  as, 

acuo  acuere          acui        aciitum          sharpen. 

volvo  (uoluo)      volvere        volvi      volutum        turn. 

IV.  The  perfect  stem  is  often  formed  by  simply  lengthen- 
ing the  stem-vowel :  as, 

(1.)  juvo  juvare  juvi  jutum  help. 

(2.)  cieo  ciere  civi  citum  rouse. 

(3.)  fiigio  fugere  fugi  fugitum  flee. 

(4.)  venio  venire  veni  ventum  come. 

Or  by  reduplicating  the  stem-syllable :  as, 

(1.)  do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  give  (compounds  usually  in  the  third 

conjugation :  as,  addo,  addere,  addidi,  additum,  add.) 
(2.)  mordeo,  mordere,  momordi,  morsum,  bite. 
(3.)  curro,  currere,  cucurri,  cursum,  run. 

Or  by  analogy  of  other  conjugations  :  as, 

(1.)      sSco  secare        secui        sectum  cut. 

(2.)      maneo         maiiere       mansi       mansum  wait. 

(3.)      peto  petere         petivi       petitum  seek. 

(4.)     vincio         viiicire       vinxi        viiictum  bind. 
2* 


34  ACTIVE   VOICE.  §01 

31.    ACTIVE  VOICE.  —  FIRST  AND  SECOND  CONJUGATIONS. 

I.    INDIC.  SUBJ.  II.    INDIC.  SUBJ. 

I  call.                    PRESENT.  I  warn. 

voc  o                   voc  em  mon  eo                rnoii  earn 

as                         es  es                        eas 

at                         et  et                         eat 

amus                    emus  emus                   eamus 

atis                       etis  etis                       eatia 

ant                       ent  ent                       eant 

I  called  (was  calling).      IMPERFECT.       I  warned  (was  warning). 

voc  abam            voc  arem  mon  ebam          xnon  erem 

abas                     ares  ebas                     eres 

abat                      aret  ebat                     eret 

abamus                aremus  ebamus               eremus 

abatis                   aretis  ebatis                  eretis 

abant                   arent  ebant                  erent 

/  will  call.                  FUTURE.  /  will  warn. 

voc  abo  voc  aturus  sim  mon  ebo  mon  iturus  sim 

abis                      sis  ebis                        sis 

abit                      sit  ebit                        sit 

ablmus     -aturi  simus  ebimus       -ituri  simus 

abitis                   sitis  ebitis                     sitis 

abunt                   sint  ebunt                    sint 

I  called  (have  called.)         PERFECT.         I  warned  (have  irarned.) 
vocav  i  vocav  erim  monu  i  monu  erim 

/  had  called.  PLUPERFECT.  /  had  learned. 

vccaveram      vocav  issem  monueram     monu  issem 

J  shall  have  called.         FUTURE  PERFECT.       I  shall  have  learned. 
vccav  ero       (vocav  erim)  monu  ero       (monu  erim) 

IMPERATIVE. 

PKES.  voc  a      voc  ate  mon  e        mon  ete 

FUT.   voc  ato  voc  atote,  anto  mon  eto    mon  etote,  ento 

INFINITIVE. 
voc  are  vocav  isse  mon  ere  monu  isse 

PARTICIPLES. 

voc  ans  voc  aturus  mon  ens  moil  iturus 

GERUND.  SUPINE.  GERUND.  SUPINE. 

voc  andum       vocat  um,  u  mon  endum  monlt  urn,  u 


§31 


ACTIVE   VOICE. 


35 


THIRD  AND  FOURTH  CONJUGATIONS. 

IV.  INDIC.  SUBJ. 

PRESENT.  /  hear. 


III.    INDIC. 

SUBJ. 

I  rule. 

1 

rego 
is 

regain 
as 

it 

at 

imus 

amus 

itis 

atis 

unt 

ant 

audio 
is 

audiam 
ias 

it 

iat 

imus 

iamus 

itis 

iatis 

iunt 

iant 

I  ruled  (was  riding)  .        IMPERFECT.     I  heard  (was  hearing). 
reg  ebam 
ebas 


ebamus 

ebatis 

ebant 


reg  erem 
eres 
erejt 
eremus 
eretis 
erent 


1  will  rule.  FUTURE. 

reg  am  recturus  sim 

es  sis 

et  sit 

emus  recturi  simus 

etis  sitis 

eiit  sint 

Iruled  Qiave  ruled) .     PERFECT. 
rexi  rex  erim 


aud  iebam  aud  irem 
iebas  ires 

iebat  iret 

iebamus  iremus 

iebatis  iretis 

lebant  irent 

/  will  hear. 
aud  iam    auditurus  sim 
ies  sis 

iet  sit 

iemus  audituri  simus 
ietis  sitis 

ient  sint 

I  heard  (have  heard) . 
audiv  i  audiv  erim 


I  had  ruled.  PLUPERFECT.  I  had  heard. 

rex  erain         rex  issem  audiv  eram      audiv  isseni 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
rex  ero  (rex  erim)  audiv  gro        (audiv  erim) 

IMPERATIVE. 

P.  reg  e  reg  ite  aud  I  aud  ite 

F.  reg  ito       reg  itote,  unto  aud  ito       aud  itote,  iunto 

INFINITIVE. 
reg  ere  rex  isse  aud  ire  audiv  isse 

PARTICIPLES. 

reg  ens  recturus  and  iens  auditurus 

GERUND.  SUPINE.  GERUND.          SUPIXE. 

reg  endum      rect  um,  u  aud  iendum  audit  um,  u 


36  PASSIVE   VOICE.  §32 

32.  PASSIVE  VOICE. — FIRST  AND  SECOND  CONJUGATIONS. 

I.    INDIC.  SUBJ.  II.    INDIC.  SUBJ. 

/  am  (being)  called.            PRESENT.  /  am  (being)  warned. 

voc  or  voc  er  mon  eor  mon  ear 

aris  eris,  re  eris  earis,  re 

atur  etur  etur  eatur 

amur  emur  emur  eamur 

amini  emini  emini  eamini 

antur  entur  entur  eantur 

/  was  (being)  called.          IMPERFECT.          1  was  (being)  warned. 

vocabar          voc  arer  mon  ebar           moiierer 

abaris,  re          areris,  re  ebaris,  re            ereris,  re 

abatur              aretur  ebatur                 eretur 

abamur            aremur  ebamur               eremur 

abamini            aremini  ebamini              eremini 

abantur            arentur  ebantur              erentur 

/  shall  be  called.            FUTURE.  I  shall  be  warned. 

voc  abor  mon  ebor 

aberis,  re  eberis,  re 

abitur  ebitur 

abimur  ebimur 

abimini  ebimini 

abuntur  ebuiitur 

I  was  called.  PERFECT.  I  was  warned. 

vocatus  sum     vocatus  sim  monitus  sum     monitus  sim 

Iliad  been  called.          PLUPERFECT.  Iliad  been  warned. 

vocatus  eram,        essem  monitus  eram,          essem 

FUTURE  PERFECT.     (Shall  have  been.) 
vocatus  ero  monitus  ero 

IMPERATIVE. 

P.  voc  are         voc  amini  mon  ere  mon  emini 

F.  voc  ator       voc  antor  mon  etor  mon  entor 

INFINITIVE. 

PRES.          voc  ari  moil  eri 

PERF.         vocatus  esse  *        monitus  esse 

FUT.  vocatum  iri  monitum  iri 

PERF.  GER.        PARTICIPLES.        PERF.  GER. 

voc  atus         voc  andus  mon  itus      mon  eiidus 


§32 


PASSIVE    VOICE. 


37 


THIRD  AND  FOURTH  CONJUGATIONS. 


III.    INDIC.  SUBJ. 

/  am  (being)  ruled. 


IV.    INDIC.  SUBJ. 

PRESENT.  I  am  (being)  heard. 


reg  or 

regar 

aud  ior 

audiar 

eris 

aris,  re 

iris 

iaris,  re 

Xtur 

atur 

itur 

iatur 

Imur 

ainur 

Imur 

ianiur 

imini 

amiiii 

ixnini 

iamiiii 

untur 

antur 

iuntur 

iantur 

/  was  (being)  ruled. 
reg  ebar  reg  erer 


IMPERFECT.  I  was  (being)  heard. 

aud  iebar  aud  irer 


ebaris,  re 

ereris,  re 

ebatur 

eretur 

ebamur 

eremur 

ebamini 

eremini 

ebaiitur 

erentur 

/  shall  be  ruled. 

] 

regar 

eris,  re 

etur 

emur 

emiiii 

entur 

/  was  ruled. 

] 

iebaris,  re 

iebatur 

iebamur 

iebamini 

iebantur 


ireris,  re 
iretur 
iremur 
ire  mini 
irentur 


FUTURE.          I  shall  be  heard. 
aud  iar 

ieris,  re 
ietur 
iemur 
iemini 
ientur 

PERFECT.  I  was  Jieard. 

rectus  sum        rectus  sim  auditus  sum     auditus  sim 

/  had  been  ruled.  PLUPERFECT.  I  had  been  heard. 

rectus  eram,       essem  auditus  eram,        essem 

FUTURE  PERFECT.     (Shall  have  been.) 
rectus  ero  auditus  ero 

IMPERATIVE. 

reg  ere  reg  imini  aud  ire  aud  imini 

regitor  reg  untor  auditor  audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

PRKS.          regi  aud  iri 

PERF.          rectus  esse  auditus  esse 

FITT.  rectum  iri  auditum  iri 

PERF.  GER.       PARTICIPLES.     PERF.  GER. 

rectus  regeiidus  auditus  audiendus 


38  CONJUGATION.  §§33,34 

33.  RULES  OF  CONJUGATION. 

I.  The  Conjugations  differ  from  one  another  only  in  the 
tenses  formed  upon  the  First  or  Present  Stem. 

All  irregularities  are  either  in  the  tenses  derived  from  the 
first  stem,  or  in  the  formation  of  the  other  stems  ;  never  in 
the  terminations  added  to  them. 

The  tenses  formed  upon  the  first  stem  in  the  active  voice 
are  also  formed  upon  it  in  the  passive. 

Tenses  of  the  second  stem  are   inflected  like  the  corre- 
sponding tenses  of  esse :  as, 
PERF.  SING,  vocavi,  vocavisti,  vocavit; 

PLUR.  vocavimus,  vocavistis,  vocaverunt  or  vocavere. 

II.  In  these  inflections  it  will  be  observed,  that  — 

1.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  formed  from  the  Present  In- 
finitive  by  adding  m ;  and  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  from  the 
Perfect  Infinitive  in  the  same  manner. 

2.  The  passive  tenses  of  the  first  stem  are  formed  from  the 
corresponding  ones  in  the  active,  by  changing  m  into  r ;  or,  where 
the  active  ends  in  o,  by  adding  r. 

3.  The  Imperative  Passive  is  the  same  in  form  with  the  Present 
Infinitive  Active. 

III.  1.  In  tenses  formed  from  the  Second  Stem,  v  between  two 
vowels  is  often  suppressed  (syncopated),  and  the  vowels  in  some 
cases   made   one ;  as  amasse  for  amavisse,  flestis  for  flevistis, 
audieram  for  audiveram.    This  takes  place  regularly  in  the  com- 
pounds of  eo,  go  (fourth  conj.) ;  as,  abii  for  abivi,  I  went  away. 

2.  Four  verbs,  dico,  duco,  facio,  and  fero,  with  several  of 
their  compounds,  drop  the  vowel-termination  of  the  Imperative, 
making  die,  due,  f  ac,  ier :  as,  die  mini,  tell  me ;  aufer,  take 
away. 

34.  FORMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 

I.    The   principal    parts  of  a   verb,  which   determine   its 
conjugation  throughout,   are  the  Present  Indicative  and  In- 
finitive (first  stem)  ;    the  Perfect  Indicative  (second  stem)  ; 
and  Supine  (third  stem)  :  as, 
v6c  o,  v6c  are,  v6cav  i,  v6cat  um,  call. 


§34 


CONJUGATION. 


39 


II.  In  the  following  examples  of  conjugation,  to  form  the 
perfect  and  supine,  i  is  to  be  added  to  the  second  stem,  and 
um  to  the  third  :  — 

frango,  freg-  fract-  break. 
fundo,  fud-  fus-  pour. 
gero,  gess-  gest-  bear. 
gigno,  genu-  gemt-  beget. 
jacio,  jec-  jact-  throw. 
laedo,  laes-  laes-  hurt. 
mitto,  mis-  miss-  send. 
nosco,  nov-  not-  learn. 
parco,  peperc-  parcit-  spare. 
pario,  peper-  part-  produce. 
pasco,  pav-  past-  feed. 
pello,  pepiil-  puls-  drive. 
pono,  pbsu-  posit-  put. 
premo,  press-  press-  press. 
quaero,  quaasiv-  quaesit-  ask. 
rapio,  rapu-  rapt-  snatch. 
rumpo,  rup-  rupt-  break. 
scribo,  scrips-  script-  write. 
sero,  sev-  sat-  sow. 
sero,  seru-  sert-  bind. 
tango,  tetig-  tact-  toucli. 
tego,  tex-  tect-  cover. 
texo,  texu-  text-  weave. 
toUo,  sustiil-  sublat-  lift. 
traho,  trax-  tract-  drag. 
veho,  vex-  vect-  carry. 
vinco,  vie-  vict-  conquer. 
vivo,  vix-  vict-  live. 

IV. 

aperio,  aperu-  apert-  open. 
hatirio,  haus-  haust-  draw. 
Sperio,  operu-  opert-  cover. 
reperio,  reper-  repert-  find. 
sancio,  saiix-  sanct-  ratify. 
sentio,  sens-  sens-  feel. 
venio,  veil-  vent-  come. 


domo,  domu^domit-  subdue. 
lavo,  lav\laut-  (lot-)  wash. 
sono,  sonu-^sonit-  sound. 
sto,  stet-istat-  stand. 
veto,  vetu-^vetit-  forbid. 

ii. 

doceo,  docu-  doct-  teach. 
faveo,  fav-  faut-  favor. 
jiibeo,  juss-  juss-  order. 
m6veo,  mov-  m5t-  move. 
sedeo,  sed-  sess-  sit. 
torqueo,  tors-  tort-  twist. 
video,  vid-  vis-  see. 

in. 

ago,  eg-  act-  drive. 
alo,  alu-  alt-  (alit-)  nourish. 
cado,  cecid,  cas-  fall. 
caedo,  cecid-  caes-  kilt. 
cano,  cecin-  cant-  sing. 
capio,  cep-  capt-  take. 
cedo,  cess-  cess-  yield. 
cingo,  cinx-  cinct-  gird. 
colo,  colu-  cult-  till. 
credo,  credid-  credit-  believe 
cresco,  crev-  cret-  grow. 
cupio,  cupiv-  cupit-  desire. 
dico,  dix-  diet-  say. 
duco,  dux-  duct-  lead. 
emo,  em-  empt-  buy. 
facio,  fee-  fact-  make. 
fallo,  fefell-  fals-  deceive. 
fero,  tul-  lat-  bear. 
figo,  fix-  fix-  fix. 
fiiigo,  finx-  fict-  feign. 
flecto,  flex-  flex-  bend. 


40  DEPONENT    VERBS.  §35 

35.     DEPONENT  VERBS. 

I.  Deponent  Verbs  have  the  form  of  the  Passive  Voice, 
with  an  Active  or  Reflective  signification  :  as, 

1.  mlror  mirari  miratus  admire. 

2.  mereor  merer!  meritus  deserve. 

3.  sequor  sequi  secutus  follow. 

4.  potior  potiri  potitus  obtain. 

These  verbs  have  the  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  of  both 
Voices:  as,  mirans,  miraturus,  miratus,  mirandus.     The  par- 
ticiple in  dus,  however,  has  a  Passive  meaning,  and  hence  can  occur 
only  in  Transitive  Verbs  :  as. 
potienda  est  tellus,  the  land  must  be  won. 

II.  The  Verbs  audeo,  dare;  fido,  trust;  gaudeo,  rejoice; 
soleo,  be  wont,  have  no  Second  or  Perfect  Stem,  but  form  the 
Perfect,  &c.,  after  the  analogy  of  the  Passive  :  as,  ausus  est, 
he  dared;  fisus  sum,  /  trusted ;  gavisus  est,  he  was  glad; 
soliti  sumus,  we  were  wont.    They  are  called  Semi-Deponent. 

From  audeo  we  have  the  subjunctive  ausim.     The  form  sodes, 
an  thou  icilt,  (for  si  audes),  is  frequent  in  the  comic  writers. 

III.  The  following  list  contains  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant Deponents,  including  many  which  form  the  Supine  stem 
irregularly.     The  Infinitives  are  all  regular  :  — 

amplect  or,  -i,  amplex-  embrace,  nasc  or,  -i,  nat-  be  born . 

con  or,  -ari,  conatus,  try.  nit  or,  -i,  nis-  or  nix-  lean. 

exper  ior,  -iri,  expert-  test.  oblivisc  or,  -i,  oblit-  forget. 

fat  eor,  -eri,  fass-  confess.  ordior,  -iri,  ors-  begin. 

fru  or,  -i,  fruct-  enjoy.  Sr  ior,  -iri,  ortus,"  oriturus  (or- 
fuiigor,  -i,  funct-  perform.  eris,  -itur,  -erer),  arise. 

gradior,  -i,  gress-  step.  pacisc  or,  -i,  pact-  bargain. 

labor,  -i,  laps-  glide,  fall.  pati9r,  -i,  pass-  suffer. 

ISquor,  -i,  locut-  speak.  pollic  eor,  -eri,  pollicit- promise. 

metier,  -iri;  rnensus,  measure.  prSficisc or,  -i,  profect-  go. 

miser  eor,  -eri,  miserit-  or  mi-  quer  or,  -i,  quest-  complain. 

sert-  pity.  reor,  reri,  ratus,  reckon. 

mbr  ior,  -i,  (-Iri) ,  mortuus,  mo-  tu  eor,  -eri,  tuifcus,  protect. 

riturus,  (moribundus),  die.  ut  or,  -i,  usus,  employ. 


§§S6,37          DERIVATIVE   AND   IRREGULAR   VERBS.  41 

36.  DERIVATIVE  VERBS. 

I.  INCHOATIVE  or  INCEPTIVE  VERBS  are  formed  by  add- 
ing the  termination  SCO  to  the  stem  and  connecting  vowel  of 
their  primitives:  as,  from  caleo,  I  am  warm,  calesco,  I  grow 
warm.     They  are  of  the  Third  Conjugation,  and  are  found 
only  in  the  tenses  of  the  Fir^^oj^jPreseiit^Stem. 

II.  INTENSIVES  are  formed  by  adding  the  terminations  of 
the  first  conjugation  to  the  third  stem  of  certain  verbs :    as, 
die  to,  dictate,  from  dico  (dictum),  my. 

III.  FREQUENTATIVES  are  formed  by  adding  Ito  to  the 
first  stem  of  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation,  Ito  or  o  to  the 
third  stem  of  those  of  the  third,  and  inflecting  as  in  the  first : 
as,  clamito,  /  keep  shouting  ;  dictltat,  he  keeps,  saying. 

IV.  DESIDERATIVES,  expressing  a  wish,  end  in  urio,  and 
are  of  the  fourth  conjugation :  as,  esurio  (from  edo,  eat),  1 
am  hungry. 

37.  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 
[For  esse  and  its  derivatives  see  §  29.] 

I.  Volo,  velle,  volui,  wish  (no  third  stem). 

IND.  PR.    volo  vis  vult  volumus  vultis  vSlunt. 
SUBJ.  PR    velim.     IMPERF.  vellem. 

Other  tenses  are  regular.  There  is  no  Imperative.  The  form 
sis  for  si  vis,  if  you  please,  is  often  found  after  imperatives:  as, 
cave  sis  mentiaris,  take  care  you  don't  lie.  Cic.  Mil.  22. 

II.  Nolo  (non  volo),  nolle,  nolui,  to  be  unwilling. 

Ixi).  PR.   nolo  nonvis  nonvult  nolumus  iionvultis  nolunt. 

Si'Bj.  PR.    nolim.     IMPKUP.    nollem. 

IMPERATIVE,   noli  nolito  nolite  nolitote  noluiito. 

The  rest  regular.     No  third  stem. 

III.  Malo  (magis  volo),  malle,  malui,  prefer. 

IXD.  PR.  malo  mavis  mavult  malumus  mavultis  maluut 
SUBJ.  PR.    malim.     IMPERF.  mallem. 

Tlie  rest  regular ;  no  Imperative  or  third  stem. 


42  IRREGULAR   VERBS.  §37 

IV.  Fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  bear. 

ACTIVE  :  IND.  PRES.  fSro  fers  fert  ferimus  fertis  ferunt 
SUBJ.  IMP.   ferrem.    IMPERAT.  fer  ferto  ferte  fertote  ferunto. 

PASSIVE:  IND.  PRES.  fer  or  ferris  fertur  ferlmur,  &c. 
SUBJ.  IMP.   ferrer.     IMPERAT.    ferre  fertor  ferimini  feruntor. 
INFINITIVE,   ferri,  latus  esse. 
PARTICIPLES,   ferens  laturus  latus  ferendus. 

The  rest  regular. 

V.  Edo,  eat,  is  a  regular  verb  of  the  third  conjugation, 
with  the  following  forms  like  those  of  esse :  — 

IND.  PRES.  es  est  estis.     SUBJ.  (PRES.  edim).     IMPERF.  essem. 
IMPERAT.   es  esto  este  estote.    INFIN.  esse. 

VI.  Eo,  Ire,  Ivi,  Itum,  go. 

IND.  PRES.    eo  Is  it  Imus  itis  eunt. 

IMPERF.   Ibam.     FUT.  ibo  ibis  ibit  ibimus  ibitis  ibunt 

SUBJ.  PR.    earn.     IMPERF.   Irem. 

IMPERAT.   I  Ito  ite  itote  eunto. 

PART.  PRES.  iens,  euiitis.     FUT.  iturus.     GER.  eundum. 

VII.  Facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  make,  is  inflected  regu- 
larly in  the  Active ;    having  also  the  peculiar  forms  faxo 
(fut.  perf.)    and   faxim    (subj.  perf.).      It  has  no    Passive 
tenses  formed  upon  the  present  stem,  but  uses  instead  fio, 
be  made,  or  become,  which  is  inflected  as  a  regular  verb  of 
the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  has  the  infinitive  fieri  and  the 
subjunctive  imperfect  fierem  :  thus,  —  fio  fieri  factus  sum. 

Compounds  of  facio  with  prepositions,  change  a  into  i  in  the 
first  stem,  and  into  e  in  the  third,  and  form  their  passive  regu- 
larly: as, 

conficlo  conficere  confeci  confectum,  finish. 

Other  compounds  retain  the  a,  and  have  fio  in  the  Passive  :  as, 
ACT.    bene-facio,    (-fa'cis),    -feci,    -factum.       PASS,    benefio, 

benefit. 

VIII.  Queo,  /  can,  and  nequeo,  I  cannot,  are  conjuga- 
ted like  eo.     They  are  rarely  used  except  in  the  present :  as, 
queo  quis  quit,  quire,  quivi 


§§  38,  39        DEFECTIVE   AND    IMPERSONAL    VERBS.  43 

38.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

I.  Coepi,  began  ;  odi,  hate  ;  and  memlni,  remember,  have 
no  first  stem.  Inclpio,  begin,  is  used  as  a  present  for  coepi ; 
Odi  and  memini,  though  perfect  in  form,  have  the  present 
signification,  and  are  hence  called  Preteritive  Verbs.  They 
are  inflected  regularly  in  the  tenses  derived  from  the  second 
stem.  Other  parts  of  these  verbs  are  — 

1.  Coeptus  (used  with  the  Passive  Infinitive  :  as,  urbs  coepta 
est  obsideri,  the  city  began  to  be  beset}  ;   coepturus,  about  to 
begin. 

2.  Osus  osurus,  both  Active  in  their  signification. 

3.  IMPERATIVE,   memento  mementote,  remember. 

II.  Aio,  say,  has  the  forms  — 

ais  ait  aiunt,  aiebam,  &c. ;    aias  aiat  aiant,  aiens. 

III.  Inquam,  quoth  I  (used  in  quotations  :  as,  inquit,  quoth 
he) ,  has  the  following  forms  :  — 

PR.  IND.    inquam  inquis  inquit  inqumms  inquitis  inquiunt. 
IMPERF.    inquiebas.     PERF.    inquis ti  inquit. 
FUT.    inquies  inquiet.     IMPERAT.    inque  inquito. 

IV.  Fari,  speak,  forms  the  periphrastic  tenses  regularly : 
as,  fatus  sum,  &c.     It  has  also  — 

IND.  PR.   fatur.     FUT.  fabor,  fabitur. 
IMPERAT.   fare.     INFIN.  fari.     SUPINE,  fatu. 
Certain  other  forms  occur  in  Compounds. 

V.  The  following  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Imperative :  — 

1.  salve,  salvete,  liail.     (salveo.) 

2.  ave,  avete,  aveto,  hail,  or  farewell,     (aveo.) 

3.  cedo,  cette,  grant,  pray.     4.  apage,  begone  ! 

39.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

These  are  found  only  in  the  third  person  singular,  with- 
out any  personal  subject,  this  being  often  supplied  by  an 
infinitive  or  other  grammatical  construction.  The  most  usual 
verbs  of  this  class  are  such  as  the  following :  — • 


44  PERIPHRASTIC    FORMS. — ADVERBS.  §§40,41 

1.  Llbgt  (liibet),  it  pleases ;  licet,  it  is  permitted,  with  infini- 
tive subject  and  dative  of  person  :  as, 

libet  mihi  IggSre,  licet  tibi  ludere,  I  like  to  read,  you  may 
play. 

2.  MiserSt,  it  grieves,  pudet,  it  shames,  taedet,  it  wearies, 
piget,  it  disgusts,  with  ace.  of  person  and  gen.  of  object :  as, 
miser et  me  casus  tui,  I  am  sorry  for  your  mishap. 

3.  Accidit,  it  happens ;  restat,  it  remains ;  having  a  phrase  or 
clause  as  subject :  as, 

persaepe  evenit   ut   utiiitas   cum   honestate  certet,  it  often 
happens  that  gain  is  at  variance  with  honor.     (§  70,  n.) 

4.  Pluit,  it  rains  ;  ningit,  it  snoivs ;  grandiiiat,  it  hails. 

5.  The  passive  of  Neuter  Verbs,  or  those  governing  the  Da- 
tive: as,  pugnatur,  there  is  fighting ;  parcitur  mihi,  I  am  spared. 

40.     PERIPHRASTIC  FORMS. 

I.  The  participle  in  rus  may  be  used  with  any  mood  or 
tense  of  sum,  forming  the  Periphrastic  Future  Active :  as, 
cum  venturus  sit,  since  he  is  about  to  come. 

II.  The  participle  in  dus  (Gerundive)  may  be  used  in  the 
same  way  to  denote  duty  or  propriety :  as, 

vera  dicenda  sunt,  the  truth  must  be  told. 

The  Gerundive  of  neuter  verbs  is  often  used  imperson- 
ally (called  the  Nominative  of  the  Gerund)  :  as, 
pugnandum  est  nobis,  we  must  fight. 

41.     ADVERBS. 

I.  Adverbs  are  regularly  formed  from  adjectives   of  the 
first  and  second  declensions  by  adding  e  to  the  stem ;  from 
those  of  the  third  by  adding  ter  or  Iter :  as, 
carus,  dear,  care ;  sapiens,  wise,  sapienter ;  brevis,  short,  bre- 

viter ;  audax,  bold,  audaciter,  or  audacter. 
The  Comparative  of  an  adverb  thus  formed  is  the  neuter 
of  the  corresponding  adjective  ;  the  superlative  changes  US  of 
the  adjective  into  e  :  as, 


§£1  ADVERBS.  45 

care,  carius,  carissime,  dearly. 
nuper,  iiuperrime,  lately,  just  now. 
sapieiiter,  sapieiitius,  sapientissime,  wisely. 
breviter,  brevius,  brevissime,  shortly. 
faciiiter  (or  facile),  facilius,  facillime,  easily. 
bene  (for  bone),  melius,  optime,  ivell,  better,  best. 
male,  pejus,  pessime,  ill,  worse,  worst. 

So  compare  the  adverbs  — 

dm,  diutius,  diutissime,  long  (in  time), 
saepe,  saepius,  saepissime,  often. 
satis,  enough;  satius, preferable. 
secus,  seems,  otherwise. 

II.  The  following  adverbs  require  special  explanation  :  — 

1.  Etiam,  also,   is   stronger  than   quoque,  and  precedes  the 
emphatic  word,  while  quoque  follows  it:    as, 

terret  etiam  nos,  ac  mihatur,  us  also  he  terrifies  and  threatens. 

—  Cic.  Ros.  Am.  40. 
hoc  quoque  maleficium,  this  crime  likewise.  —  Id. 

2.  Nunc,  now,  points  definitely  to  the  present  time ;  jam,  al- 
ready,  has  a  reference  to  the  past,  and  with  negatives  means  no 
longer.     A  similar  relation  exists  between  tune  and  turn  :  as, 
nunc  jam  aperte  rempublicam  petis,  now  at  last  you  openly 

attack  the  commonwealth.  — Cic.  Cat.  I.  5. 
non  est  jam  lenitati  locus,  there  is  no  longer  room  for  lenity. 

-Id.  II.  4. 
nunc  quidem  deleta  est,  tune  florebat,  now  to  be  sure  it  [  Oreece~\ 

is  destroyed,  then  it  prospered.  —  Id.  Ros.  Am.  4. 
turn,  cum   ex   urbe  Catilmam  eiciebam,  at  the  time  ivhen  I 

was  engaged  in  expelling  Catiline  from  the  city.  — Id.  Cat. 

III.  2. 

3.  CertS  means  certainly ;  certe  usually  at  any  rate:  as, 
certo  scio,  I  know  for  a  certainty.  —  Cic.  de  Senect.  1. 

onere  aut  jam  urgentis  aut  certe  adventantis  senectutis 
et  te  et  me  ipsum  levari  volo,  /  wish  both  you  and 
r>'yself  to  be  relieved  of  the  weight  of  old  age,  which  is 
either  already  pressing  upon  us,  or  at  any  rate  approach- 
ing. —  Id. 


46  PREPOSITIONS.  §  42 

4.  Primum,  first,  is  usually  followed  by  deinde,  next,  &c. ; 
primo,  at  first,  by  postea  or  mox,  afterwards :  as, 
primum  mihi  videtur  de  genere  belli,  deinde  de  magnitu- 
dine,  turn   de   imperatore   deligendo  esse  dicendum, 
I  think  1  must  speak  first  of  the  nature  of  the  war,  next  of 
its  magnitude,  then  of  the  choice  of  a  commander.  —  Cic. 
de  Leg.  Man.  2. 

dissuadente  primo  Vercingetorige,  post  concedente,  Vercin- 
getorix  at  first  opposing,  afterwards  yielding.  —  Cses.  B  G 
VII.  15. 

5.  With  ne  . . .  quidem,  not  even,  the  emphatic  word  stands  be- 
tween ne  and  quidem :  as, 

ne  ominis  quidem  causa,  not  even  for  the  sake  of  the  omen.  — 
Cic.  Ros.  Am.  48. 

42,     PREPOSITIONS. 

I.  The  following  Prepositions  are  followed  by  the  accusa- 
tive :  — 

erga,  towards.  post  after 

adversus,  or  extra,  outside.  praeter,  beyond 

adversum,  towards,    infra,  below.  propter  near 

ante  before.  illter,  among.  propter,  on  account  of. 

ad,  at,  near.  intra,  inside.  secundum,  next  to. 


, 

juxta.ncar.  tupra,  above. 

sum,  about.  6b,  on  account  of.         trans  across 

circiter,_,^.  penes,  in  the  power,    ultra,'  on   the  further 

313,  extra,  this  side,     per,  through.  side 

contra,  against.          pone,  behind. 

II.  The  following  take  the  ablative :  — 

a,  ab,  abs,/rom,  by.  g,  ex,  out  of. 

prae,  in  comparison  with. 
oram,  in  presence  of.  pr5,  instead  of. 

^m-  with-  sine,  without; 

ae,  down  from.  tgnfiS|  vp  ^  or  mfm  ^ 

III.  The  following  take  the  accusative  or  ablative  :  — 
to,  into,  in;  sub,  under;  subtgr,  beneath;  super,  above. 


§43  CONJUNCTIONS.  47 

In  and  sub,  when  followed  by  the  accusative,  signify  motion  to, 
when  by  the  ablative,  rest  in,  a  place  :  as, 
in  Italiam  venit,  atque  in  Etruria  tres  annos   manebat,  he 

came  to  Italy,  and  staid  in  Tuscany  three  years. 
sub  montem  ivit,  ibique  sub  arbore  consedit,  he  went  to  the 
foot  of  a  hill,  and  sat  down  there  under  a  tree. 

IV.  The  following  require  special  explanation :  — 

In,  with  the  accusative,  means  into ;  ad,  to  (the  neighborhood}, 
is  used  especially  for  persons ;  ex  (e),  out  of,  is  the  reverse  of  in ; 
ab  (a),  away  from,  is  the  reverse  of  ad;   detfrom,  has  reference 
to  a  part  of  the  object :  as, 
legati  in  castra  veniunt,  the  ambassadors  come  into  the  camp.  — 

Cic.  Kos.  Am.  9. 
ut  prdficiscantur   ad  L.  Sullam,  that  they  may  go  to  Lucius 

Sulla.— Id. 
e  patrimoiiio  nudum  expiilisti,  you  cast  him  naked  out  of  his 

inheritance. — Id.  50. 
ab  se  injuriam  propulsare,  to  ward  off  injury  from  himself.  — 

Id. 
iiihil  de  patris  fortunis  ad  suam  rem  convertit,  he  has  turned 

nothing  to  his  own  use  from  Ids  father's  fortunes.  —  Id.  49. 

43.     CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  are  more  numerous,  and  their  use  is  much 
more  accurately  distinguished,  in  Latin  than  in  English.  The 
following  list  includes  those  most  important  •  — 

1.  Et,  and,  connects  independent  words  or  clauses ;  -que  (en- 
clitic), combines  closely  into  one  connected  idea;  atque  (some- 
times ac  before  consonants),  adds  with  emphasis  :  as, 
fremit  miles  et  tribunes  centurionesque  proditionis  arguit, 

the  soldiers  rave  and  accuse  the  tribunes  and  centurions  of 

treachery. — Tac.  Hist.  I.  80. 
maiiere  ac  deprehendi,  an   fugere    et   dispergi   peiiculosius 

f6ret,  whether  it  were  more  dangerous  to  remain  and  be 

seized,  or  to  fly  and  scatter.  —Id.  81. 

When  the  second  member  is  negative,  neque  (nee)  is  used  :  as, 
redieruiit  in  castra  inviti  neque  innocentes,  they  return  into 

the  camp  unwilling  and  not  innocent.  — Id.  82. 


48  CONJUNCTIONS.  §43 

2.  Sed  and  verum  (more  forcible),  but,  are  used  to  contradict 
what  precedes, — always  after  negatives  ;  at,  yet,  to  introduce  with 
emphasis  a  new  consideration,  especially  in  argument ;   autem  in 
the  same  way,  especially  in  transitions,  but  with  less  force :  as, 
non  ad  pbpuli  Roman!  laudem,   sed   ad   judicum   crudeli- 

tatem  servatus,  preserved,  not  for  the  praise  of  the  fioman 

people,  but  the  cruelty  of  the  judges.  —  Cic.  Verr.  V.  1. 
sit  fur,  sit  sacrilegus ;  at  est  bSnus  imperator,  grant  he  is  a 

thief,  a  sacrilegious  wretch,  — for  all  that  he  is   a  good 

commander.  —  Id. 
contagio  autem  ista  servilis  belli  cur  abs  te  praedicatur? 

but  why  is  that  infection  of  servile  war  brought  forward  by 

you?  — Id.  3. 
non  solum  . . .  verum  etiam  (a  favorite  expression  of  Cicero's) , 

not  only  .  .  .  but  also.  —  Cic.  Cat.  I.  10. 

3.  Aut,  or,  excludes  the  alternative ;  vel  (-ve)  gives  a  choice ; 
sive  (seu)  is  properly  used  in  disjunctive  conditions,  but  is  also 
used  with  words,  especially  two  names  for  the  same  object:  as, 
iibi  pStest  ilia  aetas  aut  calescere  vel  apricatione  melius 

vel  igni,  aut  vicissim  umbris  aquisve  refrigerari  salu- 
brius  ?  where  can  that  period  of  life  either  enjoy  wavmtli 
better,  whether  by  sunshine  or  by  fire ;  or  cool  itself  more 
healthfully,  with  shade  or  water?  —  Cic.  de  Senect.  16. 
sive  amor  sive  amicitia,  whether  love  or  friendship.  —  Cic.  de 
Amic.  27. 

4.  Nam  (namque) ,  for,  introduces  a  sufficient  cause;  eiiim 
(etenim),  an  explanatory  circumstance  :  as, 

id  certe  calamitate  docti  memoria  retinere  debemus.  Nam 
turn,  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant, 
scimus  Romae  sblutione  impedita  fidem  concidisse, 
Non  enim  possunt  una  in  civitate  multi  rem  ac 
fortunas  amittere  ut  non  plures  secum  in  eaiidem 
trahant  calamitatem.  This  surely,  taught  by  disaster,  we 
ought  to  keep  in  memory.  For  when  very  many  had  lost 
great  possessions  in  Asia,  we  know  that  at  Rome  credit  fell 
by  the  stoppage  of  payments.  For  it  is  not  possible  that 
many  lose  their  property  and  fortunes  in  one  state  without 
drawing  more  with  them  into  the  same  calamity. — Cic.  de 
Leg.  Manil.  7. 


§43  CONJUNCTIONS.  49 

5.  Ergo,  therefore,  is  used  for  things  demonstrated ;  it&que,  in 
proofs   from  the  nature  of  things ;    igitur,  then  (a  weak  ergo), 
in  passing  from  one  stage  of  the  argument  to  another ;  idcirco, 
for  this  reason,  to  call  attention  to  a  special  argument :  as, 

ergo  idcirco  turpis  haec  culpa  est,  quod  duas  res  sanctis- 
simas  violat,  therefore,  for  this  reason,  this  is  a  base  mis- 
deed, because  it  violates  two  most  holy  things.  —  Cic.  Rose. 
Am.  39. 

nee  se  cSmitem  illius  furoris  sed  ducem  praebuit.  Itaque 
hac  amentia  quaestione  n6va  perterritus  in  Asiam 
profugit.  Nulla  est  igitur  excusatio  peccati,  si  amlci 
causa  peccaveris,  nor  did  he  offer  himself  as  an  associate 
of  this  mad  enterprise,  but  a  leader.  Therefore  he  fled  to 
Asia,  scared  by  a  fresh  accusation  on  account  of  this  mad- 
ness. It  is  then  no  excuse  for  a  wrong,  that  you  have  done 
it  for  a  friend.  —  Id.  de  Amic.  11,  37. 

6.  Quia,  because,  regularly  introduces  a  fact;  quod,  an  allega- 
tion ;  quoniam,  since,  has  reference  to  motives  :  as, 

illos  quamquam  sunt  hostes,  tamen,  quia  sunt  elves,  moiiitos 
volo,  although  they  are  enemies,  still,  because  they  are  citi- 
zens, I  wish  them  to  be  admonished.  — Cic.  Cat.  II.  12. 

quoniam  nondum  est  perscriptum  senatus  consultum,  ex 
memoria  vobis  quid  senatus  censuerit,  exponam. 
Primum  mihi  gratiae  aguntur,  quod  virtute,  consilio 
protfidentia  mea  respublica  maximis  periciilis  sit 
liber ata,  since  the  decree  of  the  Senate  has  not  yet  been 
written  out,  I  will  recite  to  you  from  memory  what  the 
Senate  voted.  In  the  first  place,  thanks  are  rendered  to  me 
on  the  ground  that,  by  my  courage,  judgment,  and  foresight, 
the  commonwealth  has  been  freed  from  the  greatest  peril.  — 
Id.  III.  6. 

7.  Quum    (cum),    when,   is   always   a  relative   conjunction; 
quando  is  also  used  interrogatively :  as, 

cum  tacent,  clamant,  when  they  are  silent,  they  cry  out. — Cic. 

Cat.  I.  8. 

O  rus,  quando  ego  te  adsplciam  ?  0  country,  when  shall  I  see 
—  Hor.  Sat.  II.  6,  60. 


50  FORMATION    OF   WORDS.  §,44 

8.  Et . . .  et  means  both  .  .  .  and ;  turn  .  .  .  turn  and  (more  com- 
monly) cum  .  .  .  turn  have  the  same  meaning,  but  emphasize  the 
second  member :  as, 
et  privatim  et  publice,  both  in  private  and  in  public.  —  Cic. 

Verr.  V.  1. 
turn  deprecabitur  a  vobis,  turn  etiam  pro  suo  jure  coiitendet, 

he  will  not  only  entreat  from  you,  but  will  claim  as  his 


9.  Atque  (ac)  is  used  after  words  of  similarity  :  as, 

ratio  ordoque  agminis  aliter  se  habebat  ac  Belgae  ad  Ner- 
vios  detulerant,  the  arrangement  and  order  of  the  army 
ivas  otherwise  than  as  the  Belgians  had  reported  to  the 
Nervii.  —  Cses.  E.G.  II.  19. 

10.  Autem,  gnim,  vero  always  stand  second  or  third  in  the 
clause ;  the  same  is  generally  true  of  igitur,  and  often  of  tameii. 
-  See  2,  4,  5. 

11.  The  same  fondness  for  connecting   one  sentence  closely 
with  the  preceding  which  caused  the  use  of  relatives  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  sentence  (§48,  iv.),  led 'to  the  employment  of 
namque,  etenim,  neque,  &c.,  in  the  same  place:  as, 
namque  me  lupus  fugit  inermem,  for  a  wolf  fled  from  me, 

although  unarmed.  — Hor.  Carm.  I.  22,  9. 

44.     FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

I.      NOUNS    DERIVED    FROM    NOUNS. 

1.  Those  ending  in  urn  or  etum   signify  a  collection  or 
group:  as, 

arboretum,  grove;  arbustum,  orchard  (arbor). 

2.  Diminutives  usually  end  in  olus  or  Ulus,  often  with 
the  feminine  and  neuter  terminations :    as, 

filiolus,  little  son  (films) ;  arbuscula,  shrub  (arbor)  ;  curricu- 
lum, little  car  (currus),  or  race-course. 

3.  Patronymics  generally  end  in  ades  or  Ides  (fern,  is) :  as, 
Aeneades,  aon  of  Aeneas  (plural,  companinns)  ;  Peleides  (contr. 

Pelides)  son  of  Peleus;  Tyndaris,  daughter  of  Tyndant*. 


§44  FORMATION    OF   WORDS.  51 

II.      NOUNS    DERIVED   FROM   ADJECTIVES. 

Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives  have  the  termination  ia, 
Itas,  or  tudo :  as, 

brevitas,  shortness  (brevis)  ;  audacia,  boldness  (andax) ;  mag- 
nitude, greatness  (magnus). 

III.      NOUNS    DERIVED   FROM    VERBS 

1 .  Nouns  formed  by  adding  or   (fern,  rix)  to   the  supine 
stem,  denote  the  person  who  does  the  action :  as, 

victor,  victrix,  conqueror  (vinco). 

2.  Those  formed  by  adding  io  or  us  (fourth  dec.)  to  the 
supine  stem,  express  abstractly  the  idea  of  the  verb  :  as, 
motio  or  niotus,  movement  (m6veo). 

3.  Those  formed  by  adding  men  or  mentum  to  the  present 
stem,  indicate  the  subject,  object,  or  means  of  the  action  :  as, 
flumen,  stream  or  river  (fluo)  ;  documentum,  proof  (doceo). 

IV.    ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  NOUNS. 

1.  The  ending  ens  or  aceus  denotes  material:  as, 
aureus,  golden  (aurum)  ;  chartaceus,  of  paper  (charta) . 

2.  The  endings  Icus  and  ills  denote  belonging  to :  as, 
civicus  and  civilis,  belonging  to  a  citizen  (civis). 

3.  The  terminations  osus  and  lentus  indicate  fulness :  as, 
copiosus,  abundant  (copia)  ;  opuleiitus,  wealthy  (opes). 

4.  Many  in  tus  are  formed  like  participles :  as, 
auratus,  gilded  (aurum)  ;  auritus,  long-eared  (auris)  ;  cornutus, 

horned  (cornu). 

5.  Adjectives  from  proper  names  end  in  anus :  as, 
Pompeianus,  of  Pompey ;  Romanus,  Roman. 

6.  From  names  of  places  are  also  adjectives  in  ensis,  Icus, 
and  as  (gen.  atis)  :  as, 

Cannensis,  of  Cannce ;   Pharsalicus,  of  Pharsalus ;    Arpmas, 
of  Arpinum. 


52  FORMATION    OF    WORDS.  §44 

V.    ADJECTIVES  DERIVED  FROM  VERBS. 

1.  Verbal  adjectives  in  bundus  (chiefly  from  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation)  imply  condition :  as, 

errabundus,  apt  to  stray  (erro) ;  moribundus,  at  the  point  of 
death  (mSrior.) 

2.  Those   in   Idus    (chiefly    from   neuter    verbs),    denote 
quality:  as, 

calidus,  warm  (caleo)  ;    callidus,  cunning  (calleo)  ;    lucidus, 
bright  (luceo). 

3.  Those  in  ax,  denote  a  propensity,  generally  aggressive : 
as, 

audax,  bold  (audeo)  ;  pugnax,  full  of  fight  (pugno). 

4.  Those  in  His  and  bills,  denote  possibility   or  aptness: 
as, 

fragllis,  frail  (frango) ;  amabflis,  lovely  (amo). 

VI.     COMPOUND  NOUNS. 
Examples  of  these  are  — 

patricida,  one  who  kills  his  father  (pater,  caedo). 
tubicen,  trumpeter  (tuba,  cano). 
tibicen,  piper    (tibia,   cano). 
armiger,  armor-bearer  (arma,  gero). 
sigmfer,  standard  bearer  (signum,  fero) . 
pontifex,  priest,  (bridge-maker,  pons,  facio). 
auceps,  bird-catcher  (avis,  capio) . 

There  are  numerous  other  derivative  forms,  but  the  above  are 
those  which  occur  most  frequently. 

Many  words  are  sometimes  classed  as  Derivatives,  which  arc 
formed  by  simply  adding  the  termination  of  the  noun,  adjective, 
or  verb,  to  the  same  root  or  stem :  as,  from  reg-  rule,  are  formed 
rego,  1  govern  or  direct;  rex  (gen.  regis),  Jang;  regina,  queen; 
regalis,  regius,  royal ;  regnum,  royalty ;  rggio,  district  under  a 
common  rule. 


PART     SECOND. 

USE    OP    WORDS.      (SYNTAX.) 


45,  DEFINITIONS. 

1.  The  Subject  of  a  proposition  is  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of;  the  Predicate  is  that  which  is  stated  of  the  Subject. 

2.  A  word  is  said  to  Agree  with  another,  when  it  is  in  a 
corresponding  grammatical  form  ;    it  is  said  to  Govern  an- 
other, when  it  requires  it  to  be  in  a  particular  Case. 

The  word  so  governed  is  called  the  Object. 

3.  The  verb  esse,  to  be,  when  it  connects  an  attribute  with 
its  subject,  is  called  the  Copula ;  otherwise,  it  is  called  the 
Substantive  Verb. 

I.    RULES    OF    AGREEMENT. 

46.  OF  NOUNS. 

A  Noun  used  to  describe  another  agrees  with  it  in 

Case  ;  this  is  called  Apposition  :  as, 

externus  timor,  maximum  concordiae  vinculum,  fear  of  the 
foreigner,  the  strongest  bond  of  union.  —  Liv.  II.  39. 

quattuor  hie,  primum  omen,  equos  vidi,  I  saiv  here  four  horses, 
the  first  omen.  — Virg.  2En.  III.  537. 

Ancum  Marcium  regem  popiilus  creavit,  the  people  created 
Ancns  Mareius  king.  —  Liv.  I.  32. 

quae  tua  est  ista  vita?  ivhat  is  that  life  of  yours?  —  Cic.  Cat. 
I.  1,  7.  (vita  in  the  predicate,  in  apposition  with  the  in- 
terrogative pronoun  quae.) 


54  OP   ADJECTIVES.  §47 

litter  as  Graecas  senex  didici,  /  learned  Greek  letters  when  an 
old  man  (senex  in  appos.  with  ego  understood). 

Aristae  us  qui  61ivae  dicitur  inventor,  Aristceus,  who  is  called 
the  discoverer  of  the  olive.  — Cic.  N.  D.  III.  18. 

1.  Also  in  Gender  when  it  can:  as, 

oleae  Minerva  inventrix,  Minerva  the  discoverer  of  the  olive.  — 
Virg.  G.  I.  18. 

2.  A  Noun  in  apposition  with  the  locative  case  is  put  in  the 
ablative  with  or  without  the  preposition  in  (§  55,  in.  3)  :  as, 
Antiochiae,  celebri   quondam   urbe  et  copiosa,  at  Antioch, 

once  a  famous  and  ivealthy  city.  —  Cic.  pro  Arch.  3. 
milites  Albae  constiteruiit  in  urbe  mumta,  the  soldiers  halted 
at  Alba,  a  fortified  town.  —  Id.  Phil.  IV.  2. 

3.  The  genitive  is  used  in  apposition  with  possessive  pro- 
nouns, taking  the  gender  and  number  of  the  implied   sub- 
ject: as, 

in  nostro  omnium  fletu,  amid  the  tears  of  its  all.  —  Cic.  pro 
Mil.  34. 

47.     OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives,  also  Adjective  Pronouns  and  Participles, 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case  : 
as, 

consularia  munera,  the  consular  duties ;  hac  lege,  by  this  law ; 
uno  interfecto,  one  being  slain. 

I.  AVith  two  or  more  nouns  the  adjective  is  plural :  as, 
Nisus  et   Euryalus   primi,  Nisus  and  Euryalus  first.  — Virg. 

^En.  V.  394. 

II.  With  nouns  of  different  genders  it  either  (1)  agrees 
with  the  nearest:  as, 

si  res,  si  vir,  si  tempus  ullum  dignum  fait,  if  any  thing,  if 
any  man,  if  any  time,  was  fit.  —  Cic.  pro  Mil.  7. 

Or  (2)  it  may  be  masculine,  if  they  are  living  beings,  neuter 
if  things  without  life  :  as, 


§47  OP    ADJECTIVES.  55 

labor  (M.)  voluptasque  (F.)  societate  quadam  inter  se  na- 
tural! sunt  juncta  (N.),  labor  and  pleasure  are  joined  to 
one  another  by  a  certain  natural  alliance.  — Liv.  V.  4. 
uxor  deinde  ac  liberi  amplexi,  then  his  wife  and  children  em- 
braced him.  — Id.  II.  40. 

Or  (3)  it  may  be  masculine,  even  if  the  noun  is  of  a  different 
gender,  when  the  existence  of  male  beings  is  implied  :  as, 
cbloniae   aliquot   deductae,  Prisci   Latmi  appellati,  colonies 
were  established  [of  men]  called  Prisci  Latitii.  — Liv.  I.  3. 
pars  certare  parati,  a  part  ready  to  contend. — Virg.  ^En.  V. 

108. 
This  is  called  Synesis,  or  constructio  ad  sensum. 

III.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns,  meaning  persons 
or  things  :  as, 

didicit  jam  dives  avarus  laudare  disertos,  the  rich  miser  has 
already  learned  to  compliment  the  eloquent.  — Juv.  VII.  30. 

So,  constantly,  with  the  possessive  pronouns,  in  military  or 
other  special  use :  as, 

nostri,  the  men  of  our  party ;    Caesar  hortatur   suos,  Ccesar 
cheers  his  men. 

So  a  noun  is  sometimes  used,  and  even  compared,  as  an  ad- 
jective :  as, 
admodum  puer,  quite  a  boy ;  xnagis  vir,  more  of  a  man. 

IV.  A  neuter  adjective  is  used  as  a  noun  (1)  to  denote  the 
abstract  quality  :  as, 

tanta  vis  est  honesti,  ut  speciem  utilitatis  obscuret,  so  great 
is  the  force  of  honor,  that  it  dims  the  show  of  gain.  —  Cic. 
de  Off.  III.  11. 
But  where  the  meaning  would  be  doubtful,  the  feminine  is  used 

with  res.     Hence  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  thus  used 

only  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  :  as, 

loquitur  de  omnibus  rebus  (not  de  omnibus),  he  talks  about 

every  thing. 

(2)   In  apposition  with  a  noun  of  different  gender :  as, 
varium  et  mutabile  semper  foemina,  woman,  ever  fickle  and 
changeful.  —  Virg.  ^En.  IV.  569. 


56  OF   ADJECTIVES.  §47 

(3)  In  apposition  with  an  infinitive  clause  or  phrase  :  as, 
aliud  est  errare  Caesarem  nolle,  aliud  nolle  misereri,  it  is 

one  thing  to  be  unwilling  that  Ccesar  should  err,  another  to 
be  unwilling  that  he  should  pity.  —  Cic.  pro  Lig.  5. 

V.  Adjectives  (especially  those  formed  from  proper  names), 
as  well  as  the  possessive  pronouns,  are  often  used  instead  of 
a  genitive  :  as, 

acies  Pompeiana,  Pompey^s  line  of  battle.  —  Caes.  B.C.  III.  94. 
puerile  regnum,  the  reign  of  a  boy. 

This  is  always  the  case  with  the  personal  pronouns :  as, 
d6mus  mea  (not  mei) ,  my  house. 

Also,  in  such  phrases  as  nostra  refert,  it  concerns  us.      (See 
§50,v.  4.) 

VI.  An  adjective  in  Latin  is  sometimes  best  rendered  by 
other  forms  in  English  :  as, 

te  quam  laetus  inviso,  how  joyfully  I  visit  thee.  —  Catull.  31,  4. 
primus  venit,  he  ivas  the  first  to  come. 

eos  se  invito  adesse  dixit,  he  said  they  were  there  against 
his  will. 

VII.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared,  both 
adjectives  are  usually  in  the  comparative :  as, 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat,  the  line  was  longer  than  it  was 
broad.  —  Liv.  XXVII.  48. 

VIII.  Superlatives    denoting    order   and    succession,   also 
medius,  caeterus,  and  rellquus,  are  used  to  designate  a  part : 
as, 

in  coUe  medio,  on  the  middle  of  the  hill.  —  C&s.  B.G.  I.  24. 
summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  height.  —  Id.  22. 
So,  se*ra  nocte,  late  at  night. 

IX.  Alius  . . .  alius,  one  . . .  another,  implies  that  the  predi- 
cate is  differently  applied  in  each  case :  as, 

duo  reges  alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt,  two  kings  en- 
larged the  state ,  each  in  his  own  way.  —  Liv.  I.  21. 

cum  alius  alii  subsidium  ferrent,  as  one  helped  one,  and  one 
another.  — Caes.  B.G.  II.  20. 


§43  OP   RELATIVES.  57 

48.     OF  RELATIVES. 

Relatives  serve  (1)  as  nouns  in  the  subordinate 
clause  in  which  they  stand ;  (2)  as  connectives,  re- 
lating directly  to  some  word  in  the  main  proposition, 
which  is  called  the  Antecedent. 

The  use  of  relatives  is  much  more  frequent  in  Latin  than  it  is 
in  English,  owing  to  the  fondness  of  the  ancients  for  connecting  a 
sentence  very  closely  to  the  preceding.  (See  §43,  11.) 

I.  Relatives  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  num- 
ber, and  person,  their  case  depending  on  the  construction  of 
the  clause  in  which  they  stand  :  as, 

utrum  ille  qui  postiilat  ad  tantum  belhim  legatum  quern 
velit  idoneus  non  est  qui  impetret?  is  not  he  who 
claims  for  such  a  ivar  the  deputy  whom  he  will,  Jit  to  get 
him?  —  Cic.  pro  Lege  Manil.  19. 

adsum  qui  feci,  here  am  1  wlio  did  it.  — ^En.  IX.  427. 

II.  The  relative  often  agrees  in  gander  with  the  noun 
(appositive)  in  its  own  clause  rather  than  with  the  antece- 
dent :  as, 

mare  etiam  quern  Neptunum  esse  dicebas,  the  sea,  too,  wliicli 
you  said  was  Neptune.  —  Cic.  N.  D.  III.  20. 

III.  The  antecedent   is    often    repeated    in    the    relative 
clause :    as, 

loci  natura  grat  haec  quern  locum  nostri  castris  delegeraiit, 

the  nature  of  the  ground  ivhich  our  men  had  chosen  for  the 

camp  loas  this.  —  Cses.  B.  G.  II.  18. 
caussam   dicit   ea  lege   qua    lege   senatores    soli   teneiitur, 

he  pleads  his  case  under  a  law  by  which  only  senators  ai  e 

bound.  —  Cic.  pro  Cluent.  57. 

Sometimes  it  stands  only  in  the  relative  clause :  as, 
quas  res  in  consulatu  nostro  gessimus  atblgit  hie  versibus, 

he  has  touched  in  verse  the  things  which  we  did  in  our  con- 
sulship.—  Cic.  Arch.  11. 

habetis  milites  quam  petistis  f acultatem,  soldiers  !  you  have 
the  chance  you  wanted.  —  C.ics.  B.G.  VI.  8. 


58  VERBS.  §49 

In  such  cases,  the  demonstrative  is  or  hie  usually  stands 
in  the  principal  clause  :  as, 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  pbpiilo  Romano  intulerat 
ea  princeps  poenas  persolvit,  that  part  of  the  state  which 
had  brought  disaster  on  the  Roman  people  ivas  the  first  to 
pay  the  penalty.  — Caes.  E.G.  I.  12. 

In  a  sentence  of  this  class,  the  relative  clause  in  Latin  gene- 
rally stands  first;  but  in  translating,  the  noun  should  be  trans- 
ferred, in  its  proper  case,  to  the  antecedent  clause,  as  in  the 
example  just  quoted. 

IV.  A  relative  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or 
sentence  where  in  English  a  demonstrative  must  be  used :  as, 
quorum  quod  simile  factum?   what  ever  happened  like  this? 

-Cic.  Cat.  IV.  8. 

quod  si  fecit  —  qua  impiidentia  est  —  eumne  testem  im- 
prdbabit  quem  judicem  probarit?  If  he  does  this  — 
and  he  is  shameless  enough  for  it  —  will  lie  challenge  one  as 
witness  whom  he  has  approved  as  juror ? —  Cic.  Ros. 
Com.  15. 

V.  Id  quod  or  quae  res  is  used  instead  of  quod  to  relate 
to  an  idea  or  group  of  words  previously  expressed  :  as, 
[obtrectatum  est]  Gabinio  dicam,  an  Pompeio  ?  an  utrique 

—  id  quod  est  verius  ?  [insult  has  been  oifered]  shall  I 
say  to  Gabinius,  or  Pompey  ?  or  to  both,  which  is  nearer  the 
tmtht—C'ic.  de  Leg.  Manil.  19. 

49.     VERBS. 

Verbs  agree  with  their  subject  in  person  and  num- 
ber ;  in  gender  also  in  the  periphrastic  forms :  as, 
gg5  statuo,  /  resolve;  oratio  est  hablta,  the  plea  was  spoken. 

I.  With  two  or  more  singular  subjects  the  verb  will  be  in 
the  plural;  and  if  they  are  of  different  persons,  it  will  be 
in  the  first  rather  than  the  second,  or  the  second  than  tbe 
third :  as, 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  -if  you,  and 
Tullla  are  well,  I  and  Cicero  are  well.  — Cic.  Fain.  XIV.  f>. 


§  50  GENITIVE.  59 

But  the  verb  will  be  singular  if  the  subjects  are  considered 

as  one  whole  :  as, 

haec  tua  justitia  et  lemtas  ammi  florescit  quotidie  magis, 

this  justice  and  gentleness  of  yours  flowers  daily  more  and 

more.  —  Cic.  pro  Marc.  4. 

So,  too,  if  they  are  joined  by  disjunctives :  as, 

neque  fides  neque   jusjurandum  neque  ilium  misericordia 

repressit,  not  faith,  nor  oath,  nor  mercy,  checked  him. — 

Ter.  Ad.  111.  2,  8. 

A  collective  noun  may  in  poetry  take  a  plural  verb:  as, 
quaerunt  pars  adicum,  a  part  seek  the  entrance.  —  Virg.  ^En. 
IX.  507. 

II.  The  personal  pronoun,  as  subject,  is  usually  omitted, 
unless  emphatic:  thus, 

loquor  =  I  speak ;  eg6  loquor  =  it  is  I  that  speak. 

III.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  per- 
sonal form  in  narrative ;  this  is  called  the  Historical  Infini- 
tive:  as, 

turn  Catilina  polliceri  tabiilas  novas,  then  Catiline  promised 

an  abolition  of  debts. — Sallust,  Cat.  21. 
ego  instare,  ut  mihi  responderet,  /  pressed  him  to  answer  me. 

—  Cic.  in  Verr.  II.  77. 

II.     RULES   OF   GOVERNMENT. 
50.     GKNITIVE. 

The    Genitive,    in    its    primary    meaning,    denotes 
Origin  or  Possession.     It  is  used  — 

I.    To  define  more  precisely  the  meaning  of  a  noun  (SuB- 
JFCTIVE  GENITIVE)  :  as, 

potentia  Pompei  formidolosa  erat,  the  power  of  Pompei/  was 

alarming.  —  Sail.  Cat.  19. 
nondum  maturus  imperio  Ascanius  Aeneae  filius  erat,  As- 

can  his,  son  of  Aeneas,  was  not  yet  ripe  for  command. — 
Liv.  I.  3. 


GO  GENITIVE.  §  50 

1.  A  phrase  or  clause  with  esse,  to  be,  is  often  limited  by  the 
genitive  ;  this  occurs  most  frequently  with  adjectives  and  abstract 
nouns :  as, 

neque  sui  judicii  [esse]   decernere,  it  was  not  for  his  judg- 
ment to  decide.  —  Caes.  B.C.  I.  35. 
timidi  est  optare  necem,  it  belongs  to  a  coward  to  desire  death. 

-Ov.  Met.  IV.  115. 

The  genitive  used  in  this  way  often  takes  the  place  of  a  neuter 
adjective  :  as,  sapientis  est  (not  sapiens  est),  it  is  wise. 

Instead  of  the  genitive  of  personal  pronouns,  the  neuter  of  the 
possessive  is  used :  as, 

mentiri  non  est  meum,  it  is  not  mine  to  lie.  —  Ter. 

2.  The  genitive  of  quality  requires  an  adjective :  as, 
vlr  summae  honestatis,  a  man  of  the  highest  honor. 

The  ablative  is  also  used  in  this  way :  as, 
vlr  summo  consilio,  a  man  of  the  highest  prudence.  (§  54,  nf) 

3.  The  genitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  noun  in  apposi- 
tion ;  as, 

nomen  insaniae,  the  word  insanity.  —  Cic.  Tusc.  III.  4. 

4.  A  genitive  of  specification,  after  adjectives,  is  common  in 
the  poets  and  late  prose  writers  :  as, 

integer  vitae  scelerisque  purus,  upright  of  life  and  clear  of 
guilt.— Ror.  Od.  I.  22,  1. 

II.    To  denote  the  Whole,  after  words  signifying  a  Part 
(PARTITIVE  GENITIVE).     These  are  — 

1.  Nouns  or  Pronouns:  as, 

pars  militum,  part  of  the  soldiers  ;  quis  nostrum  ?  which  of  m  ? 

2.  Numerals,  Comparatives,  and  Superlatives :  as, 

alter  consulurn,  one  of  the  (two)  consuls. 

plurimum  totius  Galliae  equitatu  valet,  is  strongest  in  cavalry 
of  all  GauL  —  C&es.  E.G.  V.  3. 

3.  Neuter  Adjectives  and  Pronouns  :  as, 

tantum  spatii,  so  much  space ;  aliquid  nummorum,  a  few  pence ; 
plana  urbis,  the  level  parts  of  the  town. 


§50  GENITIVE.  61 

4.  Adverbs,  especially  of  Place  and  Quantity :  as, 
satis  pecuniae,  enough  money ;  ubinam  gentium  sumus?  where 
in  the  world  are  we  ?  inde  loci,  next  in  order. 

Instead  of  the  Partitive  Genitive,  ex  with  the  ablative  is  often 
used :  as, 
uiius  ex  tribunis,  one  of  the  tribunes. 

III.  To  denote  the  object  of  some  action  implied  by  the 
governing  word  (OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE).  Words  of  this 
class  are  — 

1.  Nouns  expressing  action  or  mental  emotion:  as, 

gratia  bSneficii,  gratitude  for  a  favor. 

laudator  temporis   acti,  one  who  praises  the  past.  —  Hor.  de 

Arte  Poetica,  173. 

injuria  mulierum  Sabmarum,  the  wrong  done  the  Sdbine  women. 
memoria  nostri  tua,  your  memory  of  us.  —  Cic.  Fam.  XII.  17. 
vim  suorum  pro  suo  periculo  defendebant,  they  parried  the 

attack  on  their  comrades  as  if  it  were  their  own  peril. — 

Caes.  B.C.  III.  110. 

So,  rarely,  with  the  possessive  pronouns  :  as, 
periciilo  invidiae  meae,  with  risk  of  odium  against  me.  —  Cic. 

Cat.  II.  2. 

2.  Adjectives  of  Fulness  or  Want,  and  those  expressing  feeling 
or  desire :  as, 

sermonis  plenus  orator,  a  speaker  full  of  words.  —  Cic.  Brut.  68. 

erat  plena  lictorum  et  imperiorum  provincia,  the  province 
was  full  of  lie-tors  and  officials.  —  Caes.  B.C.  III.  32. 

Cethegus  qui  dixisset  se  semper  bonorum  ferramentorum 
studiosum  fuisse,  Cetliegus,  who  had  said  that  he  had  al- 
ways been  a  fancier  of  good  cutlery.  —  Cic.  Cat.  III.  5. 

3.  Verbal  Adjectives,  especially  with  the  terminations  ax  and 
ns :  as, 

erat  in  oppido  multitude  insolens  belli,  there  was  in  the  town 
a  population  unused  to  war.  —  Caes.  B.C.  II.  36. 

habetis  ducem  membrem  vestri  oblitum  sui,  you  have  a  leader 
who  thinks  of  you  and  forgets  himself.  —  Cic.  Cat.  IV.  9. 

justum  ac  tenacem  propositi  virum,  a  man  just  and  steadfast 
1o  his  purpose.  — Hor.  Od.  III.  3,  1. 


(]-2  GENITIVE.  §50 

So  the  participle  of  active  verbs,  when  expressing  not  an  act, 
but  a  quality  or  disposition  :  as, 
amans  concordiae,  a  lover  of  peace. 

The  relation  of  the  Objective  Genitive  may  also  be  expressed 
by  prepositions :  as, 
odium  in  Caesarem,  hatred  of  Ccesar. 

IV.    As  the  object  of  the  following  classes  of  verbs :  — 

1.  Of  remembering,  forgetting,  and  reminding, — when  used 
generally,  to  denote  the  subject  on  which  the  mind  is  exercised : 
as, 

obliviscere  caedis  atque  incendiarum,  turn  your  mind  from 
slaughter  and  conflagrations.  — Cic.  Cat.  I.  8. 

But  the  accusative  must  be  used  with  these  verbs  to  express  a 
particular  thing  remembered  or  forgotten  :  as, 
hoc  te  admoneo,  /  remind  you  of  this. 

2.  Of  accusing,  condemning,  and  acquitting,  to  express  the 
charge,  and  sometimes  the  penalty :    as, 

C.  Marium  sceleris  ac  parricidii  nefarii  mortuum  coiidem- 
nabimus  ?  shall  ice  convict  Caius  Marius,  now  dead,  of 
crime  and  infamous  treason?  —  Cic.  pro  Rabir.  10. 

C.  Gracchum  capitis  damnaverunt,  they  condemned  Caius 
Gracchus  to  death. 

The  crime  may  be  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  de ;  the  pun- 
ishment by  the  ablative  alone  :  as, 

de  ambitu  criminabatur,  he  was  charged  ivith  bribery. 

vitia  autem  hommum  atque  fraudes  damnis,  ignommiis, 
vinciilis,  verberibus,  exiliis,  morte,  damnantur,  while 
the  vices  and  crimes  of  men  are  punished  with  fines,  dis- 
honor',  chains,  scourgings,  exile,  death.  —  Cic.  de  Or.  I.  43. 

3.  Misereor,  miseresco,  pity :  also,  the  Impersonals  miseret, 
pity  ;  piget,  disgust ;  poemtet,  repent ;  pudet,  shame ;  taedet  or 
pertaesum  est,  weary,  with  the  accusative  of  the  person  affected  : 
as, 

me  meorum  factorum  atque  consiliorum  numquam  poeiiite- 
bit,  /  shall  never  repent  of  my  acts  and  counsels. — Cic. 
Cat.  IV.  10. 


§  51  DATIVE.  63 

4.  Interest  and  refert,  it  concerns, — the  subject  of  the  verb 
being  a  neuter  pronoun,  an  infinitive  clause,  or  the  subjunctive 
with  ut:  as, 

omiiem  poteiitiam  ad  unum  conferri  pads  interfuit,  it  was 

the  interest  of  peace  that  all  power  should  be  put  in  one 

mail's  hands.  — Tac.  Hist.  I.  1. 

Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun,  the  possessive 
is  used  in  this  construction,  in  the  abl.  sing.  fern.  :  as, 
quid  id  refert  tua  ?  how  does  it  concern  you  ?  —  Plant.  Rud.  178. 
Refert  is  rarely  used  in  any  other  way. 

NoTE.  —  Interest  is  used  in  the  three  following  ways  :  — 
(1.)   Impersonally,  with  the  genitive:    as,   interest    exercitus, 

it  is  for  the  advantage  of  the  army  ; 
(2.)  Personally,  with  the  dative:  as,   interest  exercitui,  he  is 

present  with  the  army ; 
(3.)  With  the  accusative  and  prepositions:    as,  interest  inter 

exercitum  et  castra,  either,  he  is  between  —  or,  there  is  a 

difference  betiveen — the  army  and  camp. 

5.  Some  verbs  of  plenty  and  want :  as, 

quid  est  quod  defensionis  iiidigeat?  what  is  there  that  needs 
defence^ —  Cic.  Ros.  Am.  12. 

6.  Also,  sometimes,  potior,  get  possession  of;  as  always  in  the 
expression  potiri  rerurn,  to  be  masters  of  affairs.  —  Cic.  Fain.  T.  8. 

The  Genitive  is  also  used  after   the   adverbs  pridie,  the  day 
before ;  postridie,  the  day  after :  as, 
postridie  ejus  diei,  the  next  day.  — Caes.  B.G.  II.  12. 

NOTE.  — For  the  Genitive  of  Price,  see  §  54,  ix. 

51.     DATIVE. 

The  dative  (TO  or  FOR)  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
whose  interest  is  affected.     It  is  used  — 

I.  With  words  expressing  likeness,  fitness,  nearness,  and 
the  like :  as, 

sinrilis  patri,  like  his  father,  —  (similis  patris  would  imply  like- 
ness of  character). 
rss  incommodas*  urbi,  things  harmful  to  the  city. 


64  DATIVE.  §51 

With  some  adjectives  of  this  class  prepositions  may  also  be 
used:  as, 

aptus  ad  rem  militarem,  fit  for  military  service. 
si  imquus  es  in  me  judex,  if  you  are  an  unfair  judge  towards 
me.  —  Cic.  Fam.  II.  1. 

When  the  dative  is  required  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence 
as  a  whole,  rather  than  by  any  single  word,  it  is  called  the  dative 
of  advantage  and  disadvantage  (dativus  commodi  et  incom- 
mbdi)  :  as, 
sine  dote  posco  tuam  sbrorem  filio,  /  ask  your  daughter  for 

my  son  without  a  dowry.  — Plaut.  Trin.  II.  4,  98. 
laudavit  mini  fratrem,  lie  praised  my  brother  (out  of  regard  for 
me  :  laudavit  fratrem  meum  would  imply  no  such  motive). 
Othoni  in  Hispaniam  comes,  a  companion  of  Otho^s  into  Spain. 
—  Tac.  Hist.  I.  22. 

To  signify  in  defence  of,  pro  must  be  used,  as :  pro  pa- 
tria  mori,  to  die  for  one's  country.  —  Hor.  Carm.  III.  2,  13. 

Mini,  tibi,  nobis,  and  vobis  are  used  in  questions  and  expres- 
sions of  wonder  and  praise,  to  denote  a  certain  interest  felt:  as, 
quid  mini  Celsus  agit  ?  pray,  what  is  Celsus  about  ?  —  Hor. 
Ep.  I.  3, 15.  This  is  called  the  Ethical  Dative  (dativus  ethicus). 

II.  As  the  indirect  object  of  transitive  verbs  which  take 
the  accusative  of  the  direct  object :  as, 

hunc  librum  tibi  mitto,  /  send  you  this  book — (i.e., /or  your 
use;  motion  towards  being  expressed  by  ad  with  the  ac- 
cusative). 

Pompeio  in  hortos  nunciavit,  he  sent  word  to  Pompey  to  the 
gardens.  —  Cic.  Mil.  24. 

A  few  verbs  of  this  class,  as  dono,  present,  induo,  clothe, 
circumdo,  surround,  may  also  take  the  accusative  and  ablative : 
as, 

donat  coronas  militibus,  he  gives  wreaths  to  the  soldiers ;  or, 
donat  milites  cbronis,  he  presents  the  soldiers  with  wreath*. 

III.  With  many  verbs  (transitive  in  English)  which  sig- 
nify favor,  obedience,  command,  pardon,  envy,  and  the  like  :  as, 

cur  mini  invides?  why  do  you  envy  me  ? 
civltati  serviebat,  he  served  the  state. 


§  £1  DATIVE.  65 

So  occasionally  with  nouns  derived  from  such  verbs  ;  as, 
invidia  mini,  envy  towards  me. 

These  verbs  can  be  used  in  the  passive  only  impersonally, 
in  which  case  the  dative  may  be  retained  :  as, 
cui  parci  potuit  ?  ivho  could  be  spared  ?  —  Liv.  XXI.  14.  (§  73,  i.) 

For  the  dative  with  other  Impersonals,  see  §  39,  1. 

Sometimes  the  accusative  of  the  thing  is  used  with  the  dative 
of  the  person  after  such  verbs  as  impero,  command  or  require; 
invideo,  envy  or  grudge ;  aequo,  make  equal ;  minor,  threaten  ; 
cedo,  yield :  as, 

imperat  oppidanis  decem  talenta,  he  exacts  ten  talents  of  the 
townspeople. 

IV.  With  many  verbs  usually  governing  the  accusative 
when  advantage  or  disadvantage  is  implied :  thus,  consulo, 
with  ace.  consult,  with  dat.  consult  one's  interest ;  convenio, 
with  ace.  meet,  with  dat.  suit ;  metuo,  timeo,  with  ace.  fear, 
with  dat.  be  apprehensive  for ;  moderor,  tempero,  with  ace. 
arrange,  with    dat.    control.      So  caveo,   beware,  prosplcio, 
foresee,  and  others. 

Medeor,  medico,  heal ;  praestolor,  wait ;  and  ausculto, 
hearken,  may  take  either  dative  or  accusative. 

V.  After   many  verbs    compounded  with    the   following 
prepositions,  and  retaining  their  force  in  the  compound  :  ad, 
ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob,  post,prae,  re  (inseparable),  sub,  and 
super:  as, 

omnibus  interfui  proeliis,  I  took  part  in  all  the  battles.  — Cses. 

B.C.  III.  87. 
hibernis  Labienum  praeposuit,  he  placed  Labienus  in  charge 

of  the  winter-quarters.  — -Caps.  E.G.  I.  54. 
Also  active  compounds  of  circum,  de,  and  ex:  as, 
classe  Caesari  erepta,  the  fleet  being  snatched  away  from  Ccesar* 

—  Cses.  B.C.  III.  111. 

But  when  there  is  a  distinct  indication  of  place,  the  preposition  is 
repeated:  as, 
detrahere    aiinulum    de   digito,  to  withdraw  a  ring  from  the 


G3  ACCUSATIVE.  §52 

VI.  After  esse,  to  be,  denoting  the  possessor :  as, 
est  mihi  liber,  /  have  a  book. 

erat  Dario  mite  et  tractabile  ingenium,  Darius  had  a  gentle 
and  yielding  temper.  — Curt.  III.  2. 

This  is  the  usual  form  to  denote  possession ;  habeo,  I  have, 
generally  signifying,  rather,  /  hold.     So  with  the  nominative  of 
the  gerund  or  gerundive  :  as, 
mini  est  moriendum,  it  is  for  me  to  die ;  (i.e.  I  must  die). 

VII.  To  signify  the  purpose  or  end,  frequently  joined  with 
another  dative  of  the  person  :  as, 

tertiam  aciem  nostris  subsidio  mTsit,  he  sent  the  third  line  as 

a  relief  to  our  men.  —  Cses.  E.G.  I.  *52. 
turn  sunt  carmina  cordi,  then  songs  are  a  deligld.  —  Lucr.  V. 

1389. 

VIII.  After  the  gerundive,  to  denote  the  person  to  whom 
the  necessity  exists  :  as, 

haec  vobis  provincia  est  defendenda,  this  province  is  for  you 
to  defend  [to  be  defended  by  you].  — Cic.  Leg.  Man.  6,  14. 
Similarly  with  perfect  participles ;  with  videri,  seem ;  and,  in 
the  poets  and  later  writers,  with  almost  any  passive  verb :  as, 
nulla  tuarum  audita  mihi  neque  visa  sororum,  no  one  of  thy 
sisters  has  been  either  heard  or  seen  by  me.  —  Virg.  zEn.  I. 
326. 

52.     ACCUSATIVE. 

The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  direct  object.     It 
is  used  — 

I.   After  transitive  verbs  :  as, 

legationem  suscepit,  he  undertook  the  embassy. — Caes.  E.G.  I.  3. 
Many  neuter  verbs  are  sometimes  used  transitively  :  as, 

meum  casum  luctumque  doluerunt,  they  have  bewailed  my  mis- 
fortune and  grief.  — Cic.  Sest.  69,  145. 

Titius,  Pindaric!  foiitis  qui  non  expalluit  haustus,  Tithis, 
who  did  not  turn  pale  at  draughts  of  the  Pindaric  fount.  — 
Jlor.  Ep.  I.  3,  10. 


§52  ACCUSATIVE.  67 

So  occasionally  in  the  passive  :  as, 

ridetur  ab  omni  conventu,  lie  is  laughed  at  by  the  whole  assem- 
ble/. —  Hor.  Sat.  I.  7,  22. 

This  occurs  especially  with  verbs  of  tasting,  smelling,  &c :  as, 

Epicurus,  h5nio  minime  reaipiens  patriam,  Epicurus,  a  man 
who  smacked  very  little  [i.e.  possessed  very  little  of  the 
characteristic  wit]  of  his  native  country . — Cic.  N.D.  II.  17. 

Also  with  accusatives  of  meaning  kindred  to  that  of  the  verb:  as, 
vivere  vitam,  to  live  a  life.  —  Cic.  de  Sen.  21. 

II.  After  many  neuter  verbs,  which  become  active  when 
compounded  with  prepositions.     These  include  — 

1.  Verbs  of  motion :  as, 

delubra  deum  adibis,  thou  wilt  visit  the  shrines  of  the  gods.  — 
Lucr.  VI.  75. 

2.  Compounds  of  circum:  as, 

cives  qui  circumstant  senatum,  the  citizens  who  group  about 
tJie  Senate.  — Cic.  Cat.  I.  8. 

III.  As  a  secondary  object  (1)  after  verbs  of  asking  and 
teaching ;  also  celo,  hide :  as, 

hoc  vos  doceo,  I  teach  you  this.  —  Cic.  de  Orat.  II.  47. 

nihil  supra  decs  lacesso,  nee  potentem  amicum  largiora 
flagito,  1  do  not  importune  the  gods  for  any  thing  more, 
nor  do  I  demand  more  liberal  gifts  from  a  powerf id  friend. 
—  Hor.  Carm.  II.  18,  11. 

So  with  passives  :  as, 

Cato,  rogatus  sententiam,  oratioiiem  habuit,  Cato,  being  asked 
his  opinion,  delivered  a  speech.  —  Sail.  Cat.  52. 

The  ablative  with  a  preposition  is  often  used  after  these  verbs  : 
always,  to  express  the  person,  after  peto,  postulo,  and  quaere:  as, 
pacem  ab  Romanis  petierunt,  they  begged  peace  from  the  Eo- 
mans.  — CMS.  E.G.  II.  13. 

(2)  After  active  verbs  compounded  with  trans,  across:  as, 
Hiberum  copias  trajecit,  he  threw  his  forces  across  the  Iber.  -— 

Liv.  XXI.  28. 

(3)  In  Apposition  after  verbs  of  choosing,  &c.     (See  §46.) 


68  VOCATIVE.  §53 

IV.  In  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  of  number  (in  an 
adverbial  sense),  especially  with  neuter  verbs  :  as, 

quidve  moror,  or  why  do  I  delay  ?  —  Yirg.  JEn.  II.  101. 
pauca  milites  hortatus,  having  briefly  exhorted  the  soldiers.  — 

Sail.  Jug.  49. 
So  id  temporis,  at  this  time.  —  Cic.  Cat.  I.  4,  10. 

Similar  to  this  is  the  so-called  Synecdochical  or  Greek  Accusa- 
tive, used  by  the  poets  to  denote  the  part  affected :  as, 
flavaque   caput   iiecteiitur   oliva,    and    their    heads    shall    be 
wreathed  with  yellow  olive.  —  Yirg.  .ZEu.  V.  309. 

So   with  the   passive    (used   reflectively)   of  cingo   and   similar 
verbs :   as, 

inutile  ferrum  cingitur,  he  girds  on  his  useless  sword.  —  Virg. 
./En.  II.  510. 

V.  In  exclamations  :  as, 

O  fortunatam  rempublicam !  0  fortunate  republic !  —  Cic.  Gat. 
II.  4. 

VI.  As  subject  of  the  infinitive   in    dependent  clauses, 
after  verbs  of  knowing,  thinking,  hearing,  wishing,  and  tell- 
ing (verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi). 

See,  for  examples  of  this  use,  Oratio  Obliqua  (§67,  i.  2),  an:l 
Intermediate  Clauses  (§70,  in.). 

NOTE. — For  the  accusatives  of  time  and  place,  see  §55.  —  For 
the  accusative  after  prepositions,  see  §  56. 

53.     VOCATIVE. 

The  Vocative  is  used  in  direct  address  :  as, 

Septimi,  Gades  adftiire  mecum,  0  Septimius,  who  art  about  to 
go  with  me  to  Gades.  —  Hor.  Carm.  II.  6,  1. 

Sometimes  the  nominative  is  used  instead :  as, 
almae  fllius  Maiae,  0  son  of  benignant  Maia. — Hor.  Carm.  I. 

2,  43. 
audi,  tu  populus  Albanus,  hear,  thou  people  of  Alba.  — Liv.  I.  24. 


§  54  ABLATIVE.  69 

54.     ABLATIVE. 

The  Ablative,  in  general,  implies  either  instrument 
or  separation.-    It  is  used  — 

I.    To  express  cause,  means,  arid  specification  :  as, 

vultu  Milonis  perterritus,  scared  by  the  countenance  of  Milo. 

—  Cic.  Mil.  15,  41. 
nee  tantum  Phoebo  gaudet  Pariiasia  rupes,  nor  does  the  cliff 

of  Parnassus  delight  so  muck  in  Phoebus.  —  Virg.  Buc. 

VI.  29. 
ferro  rumpenda  per  hostes  est  via,  a  road  must  be  cut  through 

the  enemy  with  the  sword.  — Id.  ^En.  X.  o71. 
suo  jure  noster  ille  Ennius  sanctos  appeUat  poetas,  with  pecu- 
liar right  our  Ennius  calls  pods  holy.  — Cic.  Arch.  8,  18. 
certe  non  tulit  ullos  haec  civitas  aut  gloria  clariores,  aut 

auctoritate  graviores,  aut  humanitate   politiores,  cer- 
*       tainly  this  city  never  produced  any  more  illustrious  in  glory, 

or  weighty  in  authority,  or  refined  in  culture.  —  Cic.   de 

Orat.  II.  37. 

The  motive  which  influences  the  mind  of  "the  person  acting  is 
expressed  by  the  ablative  alone  ;  the  object  exciting  the  emotion 
requires  ob  or  propter  with  the  accusative  :  as, 
11011   ob   praedam   aut  spoliaiidi   cupidiiie,  not  for  booty,  or 
through  the  desire  of  plundering.  —  Tac.  Hist.  I.  63. 

So  causa  and  gratia  with  a  genitive,  or  causa  with  a  posses- 
sive :  as, 
legates  ad  Caesarem  sui  purgaiidi  gratia  mittuiit,  they  send 

deputies  to  Ccesar  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  themselves. 

-Caes.  E.G.  VII.  43. 
mea  causa,  for  my  sake.  —  Ter.  Eun.  V.  8,  40  (1070). 

With  living  beings,  instrumentality  is  expressed  by  per,  or  by 
opera  with  a  genitive  or  possessive  :  as, 

per  Antiochum,  by  the  aid  of  Antiochus.  —  Liv.  XXXIII.  18. 
mea  opera,  by  my  aid.  —  Cic.  de  Sen.  4.     So  per  vim  (as  well 
as  the  ablative  vi),  by  force.  —  Caes.  E.G.  I.  14. 

NOTE. — For  the  ablative  of  crime  and  penalty,  see  §  50,  iv.  2. 


70  ABLATIVE.  §54 

II.  With  an  adjective  or  a  limiting  genitive,  to  denote 
manner  and  quality  :  as, 

pbpulus  magna  voce  me  vere  jurasse  juravit,  the  people  swore 

with  a  loud  voice  that  I  had  sworn  truly.  — Cic.  Fain.  V.  2. 
more  h6mmum  invident,  after  the  manner  of  men  they  envy. — 

Cic.  pro  Balbo,  26. 
ammo  meliore  sunt  quam  pars  patriciorum,  they  are  better 

disposed  than  a  portion  of  the  patricians.  —  Cic.  Cat.  II.  12. 
hommis   esse  specie  decs  confitendum  est,  we  must  admit 

that  the  gods  are  of  human  form.  —  Cic.  N.D.  I.  18. 

Manner  is  also  expressed  by  cum,  and  in  a  few  cases  by  the 
ablative  alone :  as, 

minus  cum  cura,  less  carefully. — Plaut.  M.G.  III.  1,  6. 
hoc  6nus  feram  studio  et  industria,  /  will  bear  this  burden 
zealously  and  diligently.  —  Cic.  Rose.  Am.  4. 

Accompaniment  properly  requires  cum  :  as, 

nostri  cum  funditoribus   sagittariisque  flumeii  traiisgressi, 

our  troops  having  'crossed  the  river  with  the  slingers  and 
archers.  —  Cses.  B.G.  II.  19.  (But  subsequebatur  om- 
nibus copiis,  he  followed  close  with  all  his  forces.  —  Id.) 

There  is  no  essential  distinction  between  the  ablative  and  the 
genitive  of  quality  (§  50,  I.  2),  except  that  the  genitive  is  exclu- 
sively used  to  denote  measure,  classification,  or  requirement :  as, 
suadere  principi  multi  laboris,  to  persuade  a  prince  is  a  thing 
requiring  great  labor.  —  Tac.  Hist.  I.  15. 

III.  With  the  verbs  utor,  use ;    fruor,  enjoy ;  fungor, 
fulfil ;    potior,  get ;   vescor,  feed,  and  most  of  their  com- 
pounds :  as, 

utar  vestra  benignitate,  /  will  avail  myself  of  your  kindness. 

—  Cic.  Arch.  8. 

Potior  also  governs  the  genitive,  as  always  in  the  expression, 
potiri  rerum,  to  possess  the  power.  —  Cic.  Fam.  I.  8. 

IV.  After  the  adjectives  dignus,  worthy ;  indignus,  un- 
worthy, and  fretus,  relying  upon  :  as, 

dea  carmine  digna  est,  the  goddess  is  worthy  of  song.  —  Ov. 
Met.  V.  344. 


ABLATIVE.  71 

V.  After  comparatives,  instead  of  quam,  than:  as, 
ocior  euro  [equivalent  to  ocior  quam  eurus],  swifter  than  the 

east  wind.  — Virg.  M\\.  VIII.  223. 

The  adverbs  plus,  amplius,  more;  minus,  less,  with  several 
comparatives    of  measure   or    distance,  are    often   used   without 
quam,  leaving  the  grammatical    structure  of  the    sentence   un- 
changed. 
plus  septingenti  capti,  more  than  seven  hundred  were  taken.  — 

Liv.  XLI.  12. 
plus  tertia  parte  interfecta,  more  than  a  third  being  slain.  — 

Cses.  E.G.  III.  6. 
spatium    non    amplius    pedum    sexcentorum,   a    space    not 

broader  than  600  feet.  —  Id.  38. 
The  ablative  also  shows  the  degree  of  difference :  as, 
quo  minus  ciipiditatis,  eo  plus  auctoritatis,  the  less  greed,  t/ie  ' 

more  iveight.  —  Liv.  XXIV.  28. 

VI.  After    words    implying    separation,    and    plenty   or 
want :   as, 

Forum  Appi,   differtum   nautis,   Forum  Appii,   crowded  with 

sailors.  —  Hor.  Sat.  I.  5,  3. 

Ephorus  calcaribus  eget,  Ephorus  needs  spurs.  —  Quint.  X.  1. 
curis  hommum  gaudia  misces,  thou  minglest  joys  with  the  cares 

of  men.  —  Cat.  64. 
magno  me  metu  Hberabis,  you  will  free  me  from  great  fear. 

—  Cic.  Cat.  I.  5. 

Prepositions  express  the  place  more  definitely :  as, 
exire  ex  urbe,  to  go  out  from  the  city.  — Cic.  Cat.  I.  5. 

NOTE.  —  For  the  genitive  of  plenty  or  want,  see  §  50,  in.  2. 

VII.  After  opus  and  usus,  need:  as, 

iiuiic  viribus  usus,  now  there  is  need  of  strength. — Virg.  -ZEn. 

VIII.  441. 

So,  often,  with  the  neuter  of  the  perfect  participle :  as, 
cauto  opust,  we  need  caution.  —  Plaut.  Capt.  II.  1,  28. 

Opus   (rarely  usus)  may  also   stand  in  apposition  with  the 
thing  needed :    as, 

illud  quod  maxime  6pus  est,  that  which  is  most  needed.  —  Ter. 
Ad.  IV.  7,  22  (740). 


72  ABLATIVE.  §54 

VIII.  Often,  without  a  preposition,  after  perfect  partici- 
ples denoting  origin :  as, 

Cerere  nati,  the  children  of  Ceres.  —  Cic.  N.D.  II.  24. 

With  distant  ancestors  prepositions  must  be  used :  as, 
ab  his  majoribus  orti,  born  of  these  ancestors.  —  Hor.  Sat.  I. 
5,  55. 

IX.  To  denote  price :  as, 

signa  sestertiuni  sex  millbus  quingentis  veiidita,  the  statues 
were  sold  for  six  thousand  Jive  hundred  sesterces.  —  Cic. 
Verr.  IV.  6. 

stabunt  tibi  tua  foedera  magno,  your  treaty  ivill  cost  you 
dear.  —  Ov.  Met.  VII.  486. 

To  express  indefinite  price  or  value,  the  genitive  is  used :  — 

1.  Of  neuter  adjectives,  with  verbs  of  valuing:  as, 

magni  interest  esse  kalendis  Januariis  in  republica  duo 
consiiles,  it  is  of  great  importance  that  on  the  Jirst  day  of 
January  there  should  be  two  consuls  in  the  commonwealth. 
—  Cic.  Mur.  37. 

With  other  verbs,  the  ablative  must  be  used,  except  these  genitives : 
tanti,  50  much ;  quanti,  how  much ;  pluris,  more ;  minoris,  less. 

2.  Of  certain  nouns  :  as, 

falso  an  vero  laudent  non  flocci  faciunt,  whether  they  praise 
truly  or  falsely,  they  care  not  a  straw. — Plaut.  Trin.  210. 

The  genitives    so   used   are   iiihili,   nothing,    assis,  farthing, 
flocci,  lock  of  wool,  and  a  few  others. 

X.  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE.  —  Two  ablatives,  generally  a 
noun  and  participle,  often  stand  in  apposition  with  each  other, 
having  no  grammatical  dependence  on  the  sentence  in  which 
they  occur.     This  is  called  the  Ablative  Absolute  :  as, 

Fharsalico  proelio  facto,  a  Caesare  discessit,  after  the  battle 

of  Pharsalia  had  been  fought,  he  departed  from  Cwsar.  — 

Cic.  pro  Deiot.  5. 
dis  immortalibus  ducibus,  under  the  guidance  of  the  immortal 

gnds.  —  U.  Cat.  II.  9. 
ad  viginti   matronis    accitis,   having  summoned  about  twenty 

ladies.— Liv.  VIII.  18. 


§55  TIME    AND   PLACE.  73 

Sometimes  the  participle  or  an  adjective  is  in  apposition  with  a 
phrase  or  clause  :  as, 

incerto  quid  peterent,  since  it  was  uncertain  what  they  sought. 
Liv.  XXVIII.  36. 

NOTE.  —  For  the  ablative,  to  denote  the  agent  after  passive 
verbs,  see  §  56,  iv.  —  For  prepositions  governing  the  ablative, 
see  §42,  n.  —  For  the  ablative  of  Time  and  Place,  see  §  55. 

55.     TIME  AND  PLACE. 

I.    Time  when  takes  the  ablative ;  time  how  long,  the  ac- 
cusative :  as, 
adveiitu  in  Galliam  Caesaris,  at  the  arrival  of  Crnsar  in  Gaul. 

—  Ca?s.  E.G.  Y.  54. 

dies  pontiiiuos  triginta,  for  thirty  days  together.  —  Id.  13. 
paucis  post  diebus,  a  few  days  after.  —  Caes.  B.C.  III.  82. 
Post  is  here  an  adverb  ;  it  may  also  be  post  paucos  dies.     The 
same  usage  exists  with  ante,  before. 

1.  The  use  of  a  preposition  gives  more  precision :  as, 

in  diebus  proximis  decem,  within  the  next  ten  days.  —  Sail. 

Jug.  28. 
ludi  per  decem  dies,  games  through  ten  days.  —  Cic.  Cat.  III.  8. 

2.  Rarely  the  ablative  expresses  duration  of  time :  as, 
quattuordecim  aniiis  exsilium  toleravit,  he  endured  exile  four- 
teen years.  —  Tac.  Ann.  I.  53. 

II.  Extent  of  space  takes  the  accusative  :   as, 
fossas   quindecim   pedes   lafcas,  trenches  ff teen  feet  broad.  — 
•     Ctcs.  E.G.  VII.  72. 

Measure  is  often  expressed  by  the  genitive  :  as, 
vallo  pedum  xii,  in  circuitu  xv  milium   sese   contmebaiit, 
they  kept  close  in  an  entrenchment  of  twelve  feet  [height] , 
and  of  fifteen  miles'1  circuit.  —  Cses.  B.G.  II.  30. 
Distance  takes  the  accusative  or  ablative  :  as, 
Zama   quinque    dierum   iter  a  Carthagiiie  abest,  Zama  is  a 
five  days'1  journey  distant  from  Carthage.  — Liv.  XXX.  29. 
triginta  milibus  passuum  infra  eum  locum,  thirty  miles  below 
that  place.  — Cses.  B.G.  VI.  35. 
4 


74  TIME   AND   PLACE.  §55 

III.  To  express  relations  of  place,  prepositions  are  neces- 
sary, except  with  the  names  of  towns  and  small  islands ;  also 
domus,  home,  rus,  the  country,  and  a  few  other  nouns  in 
special  relations.  With  these  nouns  — 

1.  The  name  of  the  place  from  which  is  in  the  ablative :  as, 
Bruiidusio  profectus  es,  you  set  out  from  Brundusium.  —  Cic. 

Att.  I.  15,  2. 

--"2.  The  name  of  the  place  to  which  is  in  the  accusative :  as, 
cum  e  Cilicia  decedens  Rhodum  veiiissem,  whent  on  my  way 

from  Cilicia,  I  had  reached  Ilhodes.  —  Cic.  Brut.  1. 
rus  eras  cum  f  ilio  ibo,  to-morrow  I  will  go  into  the  country  with 

my  son.  —  Ter.  Ad.  Y.  3,  54. 

Prepositions  must  be  used  to  denote  neighborhood :  as, 
ad  Tarentum,  to  (not  into)  Tarentum.  —  Cic.  de  Senect.  4: 

3.  The  name  of  the  place  where  was  originally  put  in  a  special 
case  called  the  Locative.     This  case  ended  in  I,  and  is  generally 
the  same  in  form  with  the  Dative  :  as, 

Romae,  at  Eome ;  Karthagim,  at  Carthage ;  Athenis,  at  Athens ; 
Curibus,  at  Cures. 

In  the  second  declension  the  old  form  in  I  is  retained :  as, 
Corinthi,  at  Corinth ;  Laiiuvi,  at  Lanuvium. 

In  the  third  declension  this  case  sometimes  ends  in  e,  like  the 
ablative,  especially  when  the  metre  requires  it  in  poetry  :  as, 
Tibiire  vel  Gabiis,  at  Tibur  or  Gabii.  —  Hor.  Ep.  II.  2,  3. 

So  domi,  at  home ;  belli,  militiae,  in  military  service ;  humi, 
on  the  ground;  run,  in  the  country  (rure  is  from  the  country). 
hiemare  Dyrrachii,  Apolloiiiae,  omnibusque  oppidis  mariti- 
mis,  to  winter  in  Dyrrachium,  Apollonia,  and  all  the  seaboard 
towns.  —  Cses.  B.C.  III.  5. 

erat  edictum  Pompei  nomine  Amphipoli  propositum,  an  order 

had  been  put  up  in  Pompei fs  name  at  Amphipolis.  — Id.  102. 

Veils  de  coelo  lapidaverat,  it  had  rained  stones  at  Veii. — Liv. 

XXVII.  37. 
te  domi  maiiebo,  I  will  wait  for  you  at  home.  — Hor.  Ep.  I.  5,  3. 

4.  A  possessive  may  stand  with  domus  :  as, 

nos  domum  tuam  voces,  call  us  to  thy  home.  —  Tac.  Agr.  46. 


§  56  PREPOSITIONS.  75 

When  it  is  modified  in  any  other  way,  a  preposition  is  gene- 
rally used :  as, 

in  M.  Laecae  domum,  into  the  house  of  Marcus  Lceca.  —  Cic. 
Cat.  I.  4. 

5.  The  preposition  is  omitted  before  the  ablative  of  a  few  other 
nouns :  as, 

terra  marique,  by  land  and  sea.  —  Tib.  I.  3,  56. 
tota  Sicilia,  through  all  Sicily.  —  Cic.  Verr.  IY.  23. 

So,  very  commonly,  in  poetry :   as, 

litore  curve,  on  the  curving  shore.  — Virg.  2En.  III.  16. 
IV.    The  way  by  which  is  pat  in  the  ablative  :  as, 

Aurelia  via  profectus  est,  he  set  out  by  the  Aurelian  way.  —  Cic. 
Cat.  II.  4. 

56.     PREPOSITIONS. 

I.   Twenty-six  prepositions  govern  the  accusative ;  eleven 
the  ablative.    (See  §  40.) 

1.  In  and  sub  take  the  accusative  when  they  denote  motion; 
the  ablative  when  they  denote  rest :  as, 

Aristides  in  contionem  veiiit,  Aristides  came  into  the  assem- 
Uy.  —  C\c.  de  Off.  III.  11. 

Themistocles  dixit  in  contione,  Themistocles  said  in  the  as- 
sembly. —  Id. 

sub  moiite  consedit,  he  encamped  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain.  — 
•  Gas.  E.G.  I.  48. 

sub  vesperum  Caesar  portas  claudi  jussit,  towards  evening 
Ccesar  ordered  the  gates  to  be  shut. — Id.  II.  33. 

But  after  verbs  of  placing,  in  usually  takes  the  ablative :  as, 
exercitum  in  hibernis   collocavit,  he  established  the  army  in 
»  winter-quarters.  —  Cass.  E.G.  III.  29. 

2.  Super  governs  the  ablative  when  it  means  concerning ;  other- 
wise the  accusative :  as, 

hac  super  re,  concerning  this  matter.  —  Cic.  Att.  XVI.  16. 
summa  super  culmma  tecti,  over  the  roof  of  the  house. — Virg. 
2En.  II.  694. 


76  PREPOSITIONS.  §56 

3.  Subter  governs  the  accusative ;  but  sometimes  the  ablative 
in  poetry :  as, 

subter  fastigia  tecti,  below  the  roof  of  tJie  house.  — Virg.  ^En. 

VIII.  366. 
subter  litore,  below  the  shore.  —  Catull.  65,  7. 

4.  In  giving  the  day  of  the  month,  the  preposition  ante,  before, 
is  usually  omitted  :  as, 

xv.  kalendas   Augustas,   the  fifteenth  day   before  the  kalends 

of  August  (July  18).— Tac.  Hist.  II.  91. 

Often  ante  diem  (a.  d.) ,  with  an  ordinal,  is  used  like  a  preposi- 
tion governing  an  accusative  :  as, 
is  dies  erat  a.  -d.  v.  kal.  Apr.,  this  day  was  the  fifth  day  before 

the  kalends  of  April  (March  28).  —  Caes.  E.G.  I.  6. 
This  phrase  may  even  be  governed  by  a  preposition  :  as, 
in  a.  d.  v.  kalendas  N&vembres,  to  the  fifth  day  before  the  ka- 
lends of  November  (October  28).  — Cic.  Cat.  I.  3. 

5.  Tenus  (which  follows  its  noun)  sometimes  governs  the  geni- 
tive :  as, 

Corcyrae  tenus,  as  far  as  Corcyra.  —  Liv.  XXVI.  24. 

But  regularly  it  takes  the  ablative  :  as, 

capulo  tenus,  up  to  the  hilt.  — Virg.  JEn.  V.  553. 

II.  Certain  adverbs  are  sometimes  construed  like  prepo- 
sitions :  — 

1.  Fridie,  postridie,  propius,  proxime,  versus,  and  usque, 
and  (less  frequently)  the  adjectives  propior  and  proximus,  may 
be  followed  by  the  accusative  :  as, 

pridie  Nonas  Junias,  the  day  before  the  Nones  of  June  (June  4). 
—  Cic.  Fam.  III.  4.  1. 

2    The  adverb  palam  may  govern  the  ablative  :  as, 
palam  duobus  exercitibus,  in  the  presence  of  two  armies.  -^Liv. 
XXV.  18. 

3.  Clam  may  take  either  accusative  or  ablative  :  as, 
clam  matrem   suam,  ivithout   her  mothers   knowledge. — Plaut. 

M.G.  112  (II.  1,33). 
clam  vobis,  ivithout  your  knowledge.  — Cses.  E.G.  II.  32. 


§57  SEQUENCE    OF   TENSES.  77 

III.  Some  prepositions  which  imply  comparison,  as  ante, 
before  ;  post,  after,  —  like   the   adverb  prius,    before,  —  are 
followed,  like  comparatives,  by  quam  ;  several  words,  or  even 
clauses,  sometimes  coming  between  :  as, 

neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  f  idem  dedit,  nor  did  Tie  let  him 
go  until  he  gave  a  pledge.  — Liv.  XXXIX.  10. 

IV.  The  ablative,  with  a  or  ab,  is  regularly  used  after 
passive  verbs,  to  denote  the  agent,  if  a  person,  or  if  spoken 
of  as  a  person  :  as, 

Turpilius,  jussus  a  Metello  causam  dicere,  Turpilius,  being 

ordered  by  the  consul  to  plead  his  cause.  —  Sail.  Jug.  69. 
This  use  of  the  ablative  of  the  agent  must  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  the  ablative  of  instrument :  as, 
occisus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sivord ;  but  occisus  ab  hoste,  slain 
by  an  enemy. 

NOTE.  — For  the  so-called  dative  of  the  agent  with  the  gerund- 
ive, see  §§  51,  vi.  73,  i. 

III.     SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 
57.     SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.     (See  §27.) 

The  Tenses  of  Finite  Moods  are  distributed  into 
two  classes :  — 

1.  PRIMARY,  including  the  Present,  both   Futures,  and 
Perfect  (definite). 

2.  SECONDARY,  including  the  Imperfect,  Perfect  (histori- 
cal), and  Pluperfect. 

In  compound  Sentences,  a  Primary  tense  in  the 
leading  clause  is  followed  by  a  Primary  tense  in  the 
dependent  clause ;  and  a  Secondary  tense  is  followed 
by  a  Secondary :  as, 

venit  ut  nos  videat,  he  comes  to  see  us. 
venit  ut  nos  videat,  he  is  come  to  see  us. 
venit  ut  nos  videret,  he  came  to  see  us. 
veni  ut  nos  videas,  come  to  see  us. 


78  SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES.  §£7 

I.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  regularly  a  primary  tense, 
and  is  used  to  express  any  past  action  depending  upon  a  verb 
in  a  primary  tense  :  as, 

ex  epistolis   intellegi  licet,  quam  frequens   fuerit  Platonis 
auditor,  it  may  be  judged  from  his  epistles  how  constant  a 
listener  to  Plato  he  was.  —  Cic.  Orat.  4. 
But  occasionally  it  is  used  in  an  aoristic  sense :  as, 
eo  discordiae  ventum,  ut  ad  Vitellium  perfugerit,   the  dis- 
cussion reached  such  a  height  that  he  fled  to   Vitellius.  — 
Tac.  Hist.  I.  60. 

In  this  way  a  perfect  subjunctive  or  infinitive,  depending  upon 
a  primary  tense,  may  itself  be"  followed  by  secondary  tenses  :  as, 
sic  mihi  perspicere   videor,   ita    natos    esse   nos   ut   inter 
omnes  esset  societas  quaedam,  I  think  that  I  see  that 
we  were  so  born  that  there  exists  among  all  a  certain  alli- 
ance. —  Cic.  de  Amic.  5. 

The  perfect  subjunctive  is  also  used  for  a  future  perfect :  as, 
ostendit  si  sublata  sit  venditio  bonorum,  ilium  pecuniam 
grandem  amissurum,   he  shows  that  if  the  sale  of  the 
property  shall  be  stopped,  he  will  lose  much   money   [si 
sublata  erit,  amittet] .  —  Cic.  Rose.  Am.  38. 

II.  The  Present  is  often  used  in  narrative  for  the  Histori- 
cal Perfect,  and  may  be  followed  by  Secondary  Tenses  :  as, 
Senatus    decernit  iiti  in  Hberis   custodiis   haberentur,  the 

Senate  decrees  that  they  should  be  held  in  free  custody.  — 
Sail.  Cat.  47. 

III.  The  Tenses  denoting  completed  action  are  used  much 
more  accurately  in  Latin  than  in  English :  as, 

si  eris  meritus,  fiet,  if  you   deserve   [shall  have  deserved],  it 

shall  be  done.  —  Plaut.  Trin.  IV.  3,  61. 
vivo  et  regno  simul  ista  reliqui  quae  vos  ad  caelum  fertis, 

1  live  and  reign,  as  soon  as  I  leave  [have  left]  those  scenes 

which  you  extol  to  heaven.  — Hor.  Ep.  I.  10.  8. 
After  postquam,  posteaquam,  and  ubi,  the  Perfect  is  used 
where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect :  as, 
postquam  id  animum  advertit,  when  lie  had  perceived  this.  — 

Ciies.  E.G.  I.  24, 


i 

§57  SEQUENCE   OF   TENSES.  79 

Dum,  while  (not  as  long  as),  is  usually  followed  by  the  Present 

Indicative,  even  when  referring  to  past  time  :  as, 

dum   haec   in   colloquio    geruiitur,    Caesari   nuntiatum   est, 
while  these  things  were  going  on  in  the  conference,  it  was  an- 
nounced to  Caesar.  —  Caes.  B.G.  I.  46. 
The  Perfect  Indefinite  is  often  found  (followed  by  secondary 

tenses),  where  the  regular  Perfect  would  be  used  in  English :  as, 

mini  ut  urbi  satis  esset  praesidii  coiisultum  atque  provisum 
est.  /  have  considered  and  provided  that  the  city  should  have 
a  sufficient  guard.  —  Cic.  Cat.  II.  12. 

IV.  In  dependent  clauses,  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  have 
no  time  of  their  own,  but  are  present,  past,  or  future,  rela- 
tively to  the  time  of  the  verb  upon  which  they  depend:  as, 
nostros  11011  esse  inferiores  intellexit,  he  ascertained  that  our 

men  were  not  inferior.  — Caes.  B.G.  II.  8. 

quam  Juno  fertur  terris  magis  omnibus  cbluisse,  which  Juno 
is  said  to  have  cherished  above  all  lands. — Virg.  -ZEn.  I.  15. 

sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures,  they  hope  to  re- 
ceive the  greatest  advantages.  —  Cic.  de  Amic.  21, 
The  present  infinitive,  after  a  verb  in  the  past,  must  often  be 

rendered  by  the  perfect  infinitive  in  English  ;  this  is  most  frequent 

with  potui,  could ;  debui,  oportuit,  ought :  as, 

scire  potuit,  he  might  have  known, —  Cic.  pro  Mil.  17. 

qui  videbatur  omnino  mori  11011  debuisse,  who  seemed  one  that 

ought  not  to  have  died  at  alL  —  Cic.  pro  Arch.  8. 
Memmi,  and  some  other  verbs,  in  an   account  of  what  the 

speaker  has  personally  witnessed,  take  the  present  infinitive  :  as, 

memiiii  Catonem  mecum  disserere,  /  remember  Cato^s  discours- 
ing with  me.  —  Cic.  de  Amic.  3. 

V.  The  statement  of  a  general  truth,  following  a  secon- 
dary tense,  observes  the  rule  of  connection  of  tenses :  as, 
judicabant   esse    aliquid   natura   pulchrum    atque   praecla- 

rum  quod  sua  sponte  peteretur,  they  were  of  opinion 
that  there  is  something  beautiful  and  glorious  by  nature, 
which  is  sought  for  its  own  sake.  —  Cic.  de  Senect.  13. 


80  MOODS0  §  58 

58.     MOODS. 

The  Moods  of  a  Latin  verb  are  the  Indicative,  Sub- 
junctive, Imperative,  and  InfinitivCc 

L  The  Indicative  is  regularly  employed  for  the  leading 
verb  of  a  sentence  :  it  is  used  in  direct  assertions  or  ques- 
tions, and  in  historical  narrative. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  chiefly  for  dependent  con- 
structions,—  especially  to  denote  any  thing  as  contingent, 
conceived  of,  or  desired,  — •  its  tense  being  determined  by  that 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends.     (See  §  57»)     In  particular 

"it  is  found,  — 

10  In  many  Conditional  sentences,  the  condition  being  often 
implied,  §§  59,  60,  61,  62. 

2.  In  certain  relations  of  Cause  or  Motive,  §  63. 

3.  In  clauses  which  express  Purpose  or  Result,  §§  64,  65. 

4.  In  intermediate  and  subordinate  clauses,  chiefly  relative  or 
interrogative,  §§66,  67. 

5.  In  wishes  and  commands  (in  the  present  and  perfect),  to 
take  the  place  of  the.  Imperative,  §  68. 

III.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands ;  also,  in  early 
writers  and  poets,  in  prohibitions :  as, 

consulate    vobis,    prospicite    patriae,    conservate    vos,    take 
measures  for  your  safety,  provide  for  the  country -,  preserve 
yourselves.  — Cic.  Cat,  IV.  2. 
nimium  ne  crede  colori,  do  not  trust  complexion  overmuch.  — 

Virg.  Buc.  IL  17. 

Prohibitions  are  regularly  expressed  by  the  second  person  sin- 
gular of  the  perfect  subjunctive  with  ne;  noli  with  the  infinitive; 
or  by  cave  with  the  subjunctive  :  as, 
lie  territus  fueris,  be  not  terrified. — Tac.  Hist  I,  16. 
noli  putare,  do  not  think.  --  Cic   Brut.  33, 
cave  faxis,  do  not  do  it.  —  Ter.  Heaut.  187  (I.  2.  13). 

The  future  imperative  is  used  in  statutes,  edicts,  and  wills :  as, 
caput  obiiubito,  arbori  infelici  suspendito,  veil  7ns  head, 

hang  him  to  the  accursed  tree.  —  Cic.  pro  Rabu  4. 
NOTE.  —  For  the  subjunctive  used  imperatively,  see  §  68. 


§69  CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES.  81 

IV.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative, 
is  construed  either  as  the  subject  or  as  the  object  of  the  lead- 
ing verb.  In  this  use,  it  is  found  especially  iu  the  construc- 
tion called  oratio  obliqua.  (See  §  67.) 

In  other  cases,  hardly  any  tense  is  used  except  the  present, 
expressing  no  distinct  relation  of  time :  as, 
mitto  quaerere,  I  refrain  from  asking.  —  Cic.  Rose.  Am.  19. 

The  poets  and  later  writers  use  the  infinitive  after  adjectives, 
or  to  express  a  purpose  :  as, 

durus   componere   versus,  harsh  in  composing  verses.  —  Hor. 

Sat.  I.  4,  8. 

furit  te  reperire,  he  rages  to  find  thee.  —  ld.  Carm.  I.  15,  27. 
fruges  consumers  nati,  born  to  consume  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
-Id.  Ep.  II.  2/27. 

59.     CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

I.  When  any  thing  is  stated,  the  truth  of  which  is  made 
to  depend  on  the  truth  of  some  other  statement,  contained  in 
a  subordinate   clause,   the   sentence  is  called  a   Conditional 
Sentence. 

The  Principal  clause  —  that  containing  the  conclusion  — 
is  called  the  apodosis ;  the  Subordinate  clause  —  that  stating 
the  condition  —  is  called  the  protasis  :  as, 

si  qui  exire  volunt,  conmvere  possum,  if  any  wish  to  depart 
(protasis),  I  am  ready  to  connive  (apodosis).  — Cic.  Cat. 
II.  \'2. 

II.  The  statement  of  the  condition  in  Latin  (protasis)  is 
regularly  introduced  by  si,  if;   sin,  but  if;  nisi,  unless  ;  but 
a  clause  introduced  by  an  indefinite  relative   (whoever),  or  a 
relative  conjunction  (when,  since,  and  the  like),  may  be  con- 
sidered as  equivalent  to  a  conditional  clause  :  as, 

quod  in  alia  causa  non  concederem  in  liac  concedam,  what 
I  would  not  grant  in  another  case  [if  the  case  were  differ- 
ent] I  will  grant  in  this.  —  Cic.  Rose,  Am.  27. 

4* 


82  CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  §59 

The  statement  of  the   consequence  or  result  depends  in 
form  on  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence,  which 
may  require  a  participle,  infinitive,  or  phrase :  as, 
quod  si  praeterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sola  decima 
legione   iturum,  de  qua  non  dubitaret,  but  if  no  one 
else  would  follow,  still  he  would  go  with  the  tenth  legion 
alone,  of  which  he  had  no  doubt.  —  Cses.  B.G.  I.  40. 
si  quos  adversurn  proelium  et  fiiga  Gallorum  commoveret, 
hos  si  quaererent  reperire  posse,  if  any  were  troubled 
by  this  check,  and  by  tlieflujlit  of  the  Gauls,  they  might  find 
if  they  would  ask.  — Id. 

III.  Any  tense  of  the  Indicative  may  be  used  to  express 
both  condition  and  result  in  its  appropriate  time  :  as, 

si  ergo  apud  inferos  miseri  non  sunt,  ne  sunt  quidem  apud 
inferos  ulli,  if,  therefore,  the  wretclied  are  not  in  the  in- 
fernal regions,  there  is  no  one  there  at  all.  — Cic.  Tusc.  I.  6. 

sanabimur  si  volemus,  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish.  —  Id. 
III.  6. 

quicquid  jurarunt,  ventus  et  unda  rapit,  whatever  they  have 
sworn  [i.e.,  if  they  have  sworn  any  thing],  the  winds  and 
waves  sweep  away.  — Prop.  II.  28.  8. 

IV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  both  members  of  condi- 
tional sentences  :  — 

1.  The  Present,  in  reference  to  future  time,  to  express  a 
supposition  less  vividly  or  as  less  probable  than  when  the 
future  indicative  is  used:   as, 

nee  si  muneribus  certes,  concedat  lollas,  nor  if  you  should 
vie  in  gifts,  would  lollas  yield.  — Virg.  Buc.  II,  57. 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat  ? 
If  thy  country  slioidd  thus  speak  to  thee,  ought  she  not  to 
prevail  ?  —  Cic.  Cat.  I.  8. 

Often  the  future  indicative  stands  in  the  apodosis ;  as, 
si  deficiant  vires,  audacia  certe  laus  erit,  if  strength  should 
fail,  boldness  at  least  will  have  praise.  —  Prop.  II.  10,  5. 

2.  The  Secondary  tenses,  when  the  supposition  is  known 
to  be  false  ;  the  imperfect  referring  to  present  time,  the  plu- 
perfect to  past :  as, 


§59  CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  83 

si  meum  consHium  auctoritasque  valuisset,  tu  hodie  egeres, 
nos  liberi  essemus,  respublica  11011  tot  duces  et  ex- 
ercitus  amisisset,  if  my  judgment  and  authority  had 
prevailed  [as  they  did  not],  you  would  this  day  be  poor 
[which  you  are  not],  we  should  be  free,  the  republic  would 
not  have  lost  so  many  leaders  and  armies.  —  Cie.Phil.  11. 15. 

The  indicative  (in  apodosis)  sometimes  expresses  what  ought 
f,o  have  been  done,  or  is  intended,  or  already  begun  s  as, 

si  Romae  Cii.  Pompeius  privatus  esset  hoc  tempore,  tamen 
is  erat  deligendus,  if  Cticeus  Pompey  were  a  private  citi- 
zen at  Rome  at  this  time,  nevertheless  he  ought  to  be  selected* 
—  Cic.  Leg.  Man.  17. 

in  amplexus  f  iliae  ruebat,  nisi  lictores  obstitisseiit,  he  was 
about  rushing  into  his  daughter's  arms,  unless  the  lictors 
had  prevented.  — Tac.  Ann.  XYI.  32. 
When  a  subjunctive  is  required  in  the  apodosis  of  a  conditional 

clause,  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence  of  which  it  forms  a  part,  the 

pluperfect  may  be  represented  by  the  participle  in  rus  with  the 

perfect  subjunctive  of  ease:  as, 

adeo  parata  seditio  fuit,  ut  Othonem  rapturi  fuerint,  m 
incerta  noctis  timuissent,  so  far  advanced  was  the  con- 
spiracy, that  they  would  have  seized  upon  Otho  if  they  had 
not  feared  the  uncertainties  of  the  night  [rapuissent  ni 
timuissent  following  ut].  —  Tac.  Hist.  I.  260 

3.  The  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  condi- 
tion of  a  general  nature,  referring  indefinitely  to  any  one  of 
a  series  of  acts  ;  in  this  case  the  indicative  is  used  in  the 
apodosis  to  state  a  repeated  or  customary  action,  or  general 
truth :  as, 

memoria  miiiuitur  nisi  earn,  exerceas,  the  memory  grows  weak 

unless  you  exercise  it.  —  Cic.  Sen.  7. 
id  iibi  dixisset,  hastam   in   fines   eorum   mittebat,  when  he 

[the  herald]  had  said  this,  he  would  throw  [used  to  throw] 

a  spear  into  their  territories.  — Liv.  I.  32. 

The  subjunctive  is  rarely,  if  ever,  used  in  this  way,  except  in 
philosophical  discourse  (the  present),  and  historical  narration  (the 
pluperfect),  as  in  the  examples  given  above. 


84  IMPLIED    CONDITIONS.  §60 

60.     IMPLIED  CONDITIONS. 

The  subordinate  member  of  a  conditional  sentence  (that 
containing  the  condition),  is  frequently  omitted.  Under  this 
head  belong  most  of  the  subjunctives  which  appear  to  be 
independent  verbs,  and  which  would  not  always  take  this 
mood  if  the  condition  were  fully  stated. 

In  this  usage  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  especially  common  ;  and 
the  second  person  singular,  to  denote  some  indefinite  person. 

The  Subjunctive  in  implied  conditions  is  employed  as  in 
the  following  examples  :  — 

1.  In  its  so-called  Potential  use,  referring  to  an  indefinite 
subject:  as, 

turn  in  lecto  quoque  videres  susurros,  then  on  each  couch  you 

might  see  whisperings.  —  Hor.  Sat.  II.  8,  77. 
Here  a  complete  sentence  would  require  the  pluperfect :  thus, 
vidisses  si  adfuisses,  you  would  have  seen  if  you  had  been  there. 

2.  In  cautious,  modest,  or  hypothetical  statement :  as, 
nee  ullam  morum  partem  magis  laudaveris,  nor  would  one  com- 
mend more  highly  any  one  of  their  customs. —  Tac.  Germ.  17. 

velim  sic  tibi  persuadeas,  I  ivish  you  would  persuade  yourself 
of  this.  —  C\c.  Fam.  XV.  4. 

vellem  adesset  M.  Antonius,  /  wish  Mark  Antony  were  pres- 
ent.— Id.  Phil.  I.  7. 
Velim  refers  to  future  time,  vellem  to  present  or  past  time, 

in  a  wish  for  something  known  to  be  impossible. 

3.  In  questions  asked  with  a  certain  hesitation  or  doubt :  as, 
quid  ego  carmine  plura  commemorem  ?   why  should  I  relate 

more  in  versed  —  Catull.  64,  116. 

4.  In  conceding  a  point,  or  supposing  a  case ;  —  here  the 
inference  or  conclusion  is  the  clause  omitted  :  as, 

fuerit  ille  Brutus,  qui  dominatu  regie  rempublicam  libera- 
vit,  suppose  there  was  a  Brutus  who  freed  the  republic  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  kings.  —  Cic.  Phil.  I.  6. 

si  jam  shit  id  adepti,  suppose  they  have  already  obtained  it. — Id. 
Cat.  II.  9. 


§61  CONDITIONAL   PARTICLES.  85 

61.     CONDITIONAL  PARTICLES. 

Certain  Particles  implying  a  condition  are  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive.  These  are  — 

1.  Particles   of  comparison,  —  tamquam,  quasi,  veluti, 
&c. :  as, 

tamquam  mo  do  ex  deorum  concilio  descendisset,  as  if  he 
had  just  come  down  from  the  council  of  the  gods. — Cic. 
N.D.  I.  8. 

quasi  plures  fortunati  sint  quam  infelices,  as  if  more  were 
fortunate  than  unfortunate.  —  Cic.  Tusc.  I.  36. 

2.  The  concessive  particles,  quamvis,  however  much  ;  licet 
and  ut,  granting  that ;  cum,  although  ;  and,  in  later  writers, 
quamquam,  although:  as, 

itaque  eum  qui  audiunt,  quamvis  ipsi  infantes  sint,  tamen 
illo  modo  confidunt  se  posse  dicere,  therefore  those 
who  hear  him,  however  incapable  of  speaking  they  may 
themselves  be,  nevertheless  feel  confident  that  they  can  speak 
in  that  manner.  —  Cic.  Orat.  23. 

ut  neminem  alium  nisi  T.  Patinam  rogasset,  scire  potuit, 
even  if  he  had  asked  no  one  but  Titus  Patina,  he  might  have 
known.  —  Cic.  Mil.  17. 

quamquam  per  dictatorem  dilectus  habitus  esset,  although 
the  levy  had  been  held  under  the  authority  of  the  dictator.  — 
Liv.  II.  32. 
cum  mercede  doceret,  although  he  taught  for  pay.  —  Cic.  de 

Orat.  I.  28. 

Quamquam  and  etsi  introduce  the  statement  of  a  fact,  and 
therefore  take  the  indicative  ;  quamvis,  licet,  and  ut,  of  a  sup- 
posed case,  and  take  the  subjunctive ;  cum,  signifying  although, 
while  used  as  equivalent  to  quamquam,  takes  the  subjunctive  by 
special  use. 

3.  DUHI,  dummodo,  and  modo,  provided:  as, 

multa  admiranda  sunt,  eligere  modo  curae  sit,  many  points 
are  deserving  of  admiration,  provided  they  are  selected  with 
care.  —  Quint.  X.  1,  131. 

"  Oderint  dum  mettiant,"  let  them  hate  if  only  they  fear.  —  Cic. 
Phil.  I.  14. 


86  RELATIONS   OF  TIME.  §62 

62.     RELATIONS  OF  TIME. 

I.  Cum  (quum),  meaning  when,  takes  the  indicative ;  since, 
or  although,  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

cum  se  inter  equitum  turmas  insmuaverunt,  when  they  have 

worked  their  way  among  the  troops  of  horse.  —  Cses.  B.G. 

IV.  33. 
cum  solitude  et  vita  sine  amicis  insidiarum  et  metus  plena 

sit,  since  solitude  and  a  life  without  friends  is  full  of 

treachery  and  fear.  —  Cic.  de  Fin.  I.  20. 

But  cum,  when,  is  followed  by  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  sub- 
junctive in  narration :  as, 
cum  essem  in  Ceramlco,  when  I  was  in  the  Ceramicus.  —  Cic. 

Att.  I.  10. 

II.  Bum,  donee,  quoad,  until ;    and  antequam,  prius- 
quam,  before,  may  take  the  subjunctive,  — 

1.  In  reference  to  future  time. 

2.  To  express  something  desired  or  anticipated ;  or, 

3.  (The  secondary  tenses)  in  historical  narration  :  as, 

priusquam  ad  portum  venias,  before  you  come  to  the  harbor.  — 
Ter.  Ad.  IV.  2,  44. 

dum  novi  magistrates  sortirentur  provincias,  M.  Baebius 
transire  in  Epirum  est  jussus,  until  the  new  magistrates 
should  draw  lots  for  their  provinces,  Marcus  Bobbins  icas 
ordered  to  cross  into  Epirus.  — Liv.  XXXV.  24. 

festmandum  ceteris  videbatur,  antequam  cresceret  invalida 
adhuc  conjuratio,  the  others  were  of  opinion  that  it  ivas 
best  to  hasten,  before  the  yet  weak  conspiracy  should  gather 
strength. — Tac.  Hist.  I.  33. 

trepidatioiiis  aliquantum  elephanti  edebaiit,  donee  quietem 
ipse  timor  fecisset,  the  elephants  caused  some  confusion, 
until  their  very  fear  had  caused  quiet.  — Liv.  XXI.  28. 
But  dum,  while ;  ubi,  postquam,  posteaquam,  when,  regu- 
larly take  the  indicative  :  as, 

dum  haec  geruntur  (or  gerebantur),  while  this  was  going  on.  — 
Cses.  B.G.  I.  46. 

quod  ubi  Caesar  resciit,  when  Cwsar  had  got  word  of  this.  — 
Id.  28. 


§63  CAUSE   OR   REASON.  87 

63.     CAUSE  OR  REASON. 

I.  The  conjunctions  quod  (sometimes  quia),  because,  and 
quoniam  and  quando,  since,  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive 
when  the  reason  is  stated  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  motive  in  the 
mind  of  another,  and  even  of  the  speaker  or  writer  himself:  as, 
Drusus  rettiilit  ad  Senatum  de  illo  quod  in  eum  ordmem 

consul  tarn  graviter  in  contione  esset  iiivectus,  Drusus 
laid  his  [Philippus's]  case  before  the  Senate,  on  the  ground 
that  he,  although  consul,  had  inveighed  so  bitterly  against 
that  body  in  the  public,  assembly.  — Cic.  de  Orat.  III.  1. 
accedit  ilia  quoque  causa,  quod  a  caeteris  forsitan  ita  pe- 
tituni  sit  ut  dicerent,  ut  utrumvis  salvo  officio  facere 
se  posse  arbitrarentur,  there  is  this  reason  besides  [in  my 
^  own  mind] ,  that  others  have  perhaps  been  invited  to  speak,  in 
such  a  way  that  they  supposed  they  might  act  either  way  with 
a  clear  conscience.  —  Id.  Rose.  Am,  1. 

Non  quo  (negatively  noil  quiii)  is  often  used  for  non  quod  :  as, 
noil  quo  furtum  facere  studuerit,  not  that  he  desired  to  commit 
a  theft.  —  Ter.  Eun.  28. 

II.  Relatives  implying  a  cause  or  reason  take  the  subjunc- 
tive, being  frequently  strengthened  by  ut,  utpote,  quippe,  or 
praesertim :  as, 

fateor  me  errasse,  qui  hoc  maluerim,  I  confess  that  I  erred  in 

choosing  this.  — Cic.  Rose.  Am.  490 
orationes  centum  quinquagiiita,  quas  quidem  adhuc  invene- 

rim  et  legerim,  the  hundred  and  fifty  orations,  such  at  least 

as  I  have  met  ivith  and  read.  — Id.  Brut, 
quippe  qui  videam,  since  I  see.  — Liv.  Praef. 

III.  Cum  causal,  signifying  since,  takes  the  subjunctive  :  as, 
cum  omnis  populi  Romani  religio  in  sacra  et  in   auspicia 

divisa  sit,  since  the  whole  religion  of  the  Roman  people  is 
divided  into  ceremonies  and  auspices.  —  Cic.  N.D.  III.  2. 
But  in  the  sense  of  quod,  on  the  ground  that,  it  takes  the  in- 
dicative :  as, 

gratulor  tibi  cum  tantum  vales  apiid  Dolabellam,  /  congratu- 
late you  on  your  influence  with  Dolabella. —  Cie.  Fam.  IX.  14. 


88  PURPOSE.  §  64 

64.     PURPOSE. 

I.  Final  Clauses,  or  those  expressing  a  Purpose,  take  the 
subjunctive  after  relatives,  (qui=ut  is),  or  the  conjunction  ut 
(uti),m  order  that,  and  (negatively)  ne,  ut  ne,  lest:  as, 
monet  ut  ignes  in  castris  fieri  prohlbeat,  lie  qua  ejus  ad- 

ventus  procul  signif  icatio  fiat,  lie  advises  him  to  pro- 
hibit fires  being  made  in  camp,  in  order  that  no  signs  of  his 
arrival  may  be  shown  at  a  distance.  —  Cses.  E.G.  VI.  29. 
ut  ne  sit  impune,  that  it  be  not  with  impunity.  —  Cic.  Mil.  12. 

II.  ftuo  is  used  for  ut  60,  especially  with  comparatives  :  as, 
castris  ad  Bab^loniam  positis  quo  rnajore  ammo  capesse- 

reiit  bellum,  the  camp  being  pitched  near  Babylon,  in  order 
that  they  might  enter  into  the  war  with  greater  spirit. — 
Curt.  III.  2,  2. 

NOTE.  —  Compare  quominus,  (=  ut  eo  minus,)  after  verbs 
of  hindering.  —  §  65,  in. 

III.  After  expressions  denoting  fear,  ut  (ne  non)  is  to  be 
translated  that  not ;  ne,  that  or  lest :  as, 

omnes  labores  te  excipere  video ;  timeo  ut  sustineas,  /  see 

you  taking  upon  yourself  all  labors ;  I  fear  you  will  not 

endure  them.  —  Cic.  Fam.  XIY.  2. 
pavor  ceperat  milites,  lie  mortiferum  esset  vumus,/ear  had 

seized  the  soldiers  that  the  wound  [of  Scipio]  was  mortal.  — 

Liv.  XXIV.  42. 

IY.  Ut  or  ne  is  often  omitted,  especially  after  verbs  of 
wishing,  advising,  &c. ;  as, 

Syro  igiioscas  volo,  /  ivish  that  you  would  pardon  Syrus.  —  Ter. 

Heaut.  V.  5,  22. 
cave  igiioscas,  do  not  pardon.  —  Cic.  Lig.  5. 

NOTE.  —  For  ut,  signifying  although,  see  §  61,  2.  In  the  sense 
of  when  or  how  it  takes  the  indicative  :  as,  ut  valet?  how  is  shet 
(Plant.)  ;  ut  vidi!  how  I  gazed!  —  Yirg.  Buc.  VIII.  41. 

Y.  The  purpose  of  an  action  is  expressed  in  Latin  in  va- 
rious ways  ;  but  never  (except  rarely  in  poetry)  by  the  simple 
infinitive,  as  in  English.  The  sentence,  he  sent  men  to 
plough  the  field,  may  be  rendered,  — 


§65  CONSEQUENCE  OR  RESULT.  89 

1.  By  the  subjunctive  with  ut:  as, 
homines  misit  ut  agrum  ararent. 

2.  By  the  subjunctive  with  qui :  as, 
homines  misit  qui  agrum  ararent. 

0.  By  the  Gerundive  with  ad :  as, 
homines  misit  ad  agrum  araiidum. 

4.  By  the  Gerundive  with  causa  or  gratia :  as, 
homines  misit  agri  arandi  causa. 

5.  By  the  Future  Participle  :  as, 
homines  misit  agrum  araturos. 

Purpose  is  also  expressed  by  the   Former  Supine   in   many 
verbs  :  as,  spectatum  ludos  ivit,  lie  went  to  see  the  games.  (§  74.) 

65,     CONSEQUENCE  OR  RESULT. 

1.  Clauses   denoting  a  Result  take  the  subjunctive  after 
relatives  and  the  conjunction  ut  (negative,  ut  non)  :  as, 
Augusto  prompta  ac  proflueiis  quaeque  deceret  principem 

eloqueiitia  fuit,  Augustus  possessed  a  ready  and  fluent 
power  of  speaking,  such  as  became  a  prince.  — Tac.  Ann. 
XIII.  3. 

Quae  fuit  eorum  tanta  miquitas  ut  placari  populo  Romano 
lion  possent  nisi  viri  tales  occidisseiit  ?  How  great 
was  their  injustice  [that  of  the  gods]  that  they  could  not  be 
reconciled  to  the  Roman  people  unless  men  of  such  eminence 
should  fain  —  Cic.  N.D.  III.  6. 

II.    ftuin,  that    not,  is    used    after    negative    expressions, 
denoting    hinderance,   resistance,    doubt,   and    suspension    of 
effort :  as, 
est  deterrita  iiumquam  quin   fleret,  she  was  never  prevented 

from  weeping. — Tib.  I.  3,  13. 
11011  diibito  quin  haiic  salutem  aiitepoiias  illi  victoriae,  I  do 

not  doubt  that  you  value  this  security  more  highly  than  that 

victory.  —  Cic.  Lig.  10. 

Many  of  these   expressions  may  also  be  followed  by  the  infini- 
tive, or  by  ne  with  the  subjunctive  :  as, 
prohibeiitur  adire  ad  filios  [also  lie  adeaiit],  they  are  forbid^ 

den  to  visit  their  own  sons.  —  Cic.  Verr.  V.  45. 


90  INTERMEDIATE   CLAUSES.  §66 

» 

III.  Quomlnus,  that  not,  may  be  used  after  verbs  of  hinder- 
ing: as, 

nee  aetas  impedit,  quommus  agri  colendi  stiidia  teneamus, 
nor  does  the  time  of  lif e  f)r  event  us  from  retaining  the  taste 
for  tilling  the  ground.  — Cic.  de  Senect.  17. 

IV.  The  subjunctive  stands  in  relative  clauses  — 

1.  After  dignus,   worthy;    indignus,   unworthy ;    aptus, 
Idoneus,  fit  ;  unus  and  solus,  only :  as, 

idoiiea  mihi  Laeli  persona  visa  est,  quae  de  amicitia  dis- 
sereret,  the  person  of  Laelius  seemed  to  me  a  suitable  one 
to  discourse  of  friendship.  —  Cic.  de  Amic.  I. 

nil  admirari  prope  res  est  una  solaque,  quae  possit  facere 
et  servare  beatum,  to  be  surprised  at  nothing  is  almost 
the  sole  and  only  thing  which  can  make  and  keep  one  hap- 
py, _  Hor.  Ep.  I.  6,  1. 

2.  After  general  expressions  denoting  existence  and  non- 
existence  :  as, 

eraiit  qui  Helvidium  miserareiitur,  there  were  some  who  pitied 

Helvidius.  — Tac.  Ann.  XVI.  29. 
nihil  est  illorum,  quin  [=quod  noil]  ego  illi  dixerim,  there  is 

none  of  these  things  which  I  have  not  said  to  him.  —  Plaut. 

Bacc.  III.  9,  89. 
uiide  agger  comportari  posset,  nihil  erat  reliquum,  there  were 

no  materials  left  from  which  a  mound  could  be  got  together. 

-Cses.  B.C.  II.  15. 

3.  After  quam,  than :  as, 

majores  arbores  caedebant,  quam  quas  ferre  miles  posset, 

they  cut  larger  trees  than  a   soldier  could   carry.  —  Liv/ 
XXXIII.  5. 

66.     INTERMEDIATE  CLAUSES. 

I.  A  Relative,  or  other  subordinate  clause,  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  when  it  is  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  thought  or  expression  of  some  other  person  than  the 
speaker  or  writer. 


§67  ORATIO    OBLIQUA.  91 

Many  such   clauses  may  be  so  regarded  or  not,  as   the 

writer  chooses  :    as, 

primam  posuit  earn  de  qua  modo  dixi,  quae  orta  esset 
ex  praeseiisione  rerum  futurarum,  lie  first  mentioned 
that  of  wldcli  I  have  just  spoken  [direct  statement]  which 
(according  to  him)  had  its  origin  in  the  fore-feeling  of  the 
Future.  —  Cic.  KD.  II.  5.  (See  §  63,  i.) 

II.  A  clause  depending  on  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  will 
also  be  in  the  subjunctive,  if  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  sentence  on  which  it  depends  :  as, 

qui  a  sciibendi  consuetudine  ad  diceiidum  venit,  hanc  ad- 
fert  facultatem,  ut  etiani  siibito  si  dicat,  tamen  ilia 
quae  dicantur  similia  scriptorum  esse  videantur,  he 
who  passes  from  the  practice  of  writing  to  speaking,  brings 
with  him  this  power,  that  even  if  he  speak  loithout  prepara- 
tion, yet  what  he  says  seems  like  written  words.  —  Cic.  de 
Orat.  I.  33.  [etiam  subito  si  dicit,  tamen  ilia  quae 
dicuntur  similia  scriptorum  esse  videntur.J 

III.  Intermediate  Clauses  in  the  oratio  obllqua  take  the 
Subjunctive.     (See  the  following  section.) 

67.     ORATIO  OBLIQUA. 

If  a  quotation  is  made  in  the  words  of  the  original 
speaker,  it  is  called  Oratio  Recta  (direct  discourse). 
But  if  it  is  made  to  depend  on  some  verb  of  speaking 
or  thinking,  varying  the  form  of  the  words  from  that 
originally  used,  it  is  called  Oratio  Obliqua  (indirect 
discourse) . 

In  English,  an  indirect  quotation  is  introduced  by  the  conjunc- 
tion that. 

I.  The  Latin  form  for  quotations  is  as  follows  :  — 
1.  In  Indirect  Questions  the  subjunctive  is  used:  as, 
quid  sit  futurum  eras  fuge  quaerere,  avoid  inquiring  what  will 

be  to-morrow,     [direct  question,  quid  est  futurum  eras?] 

Hor.  Carm.  I.  9,  13. 


92  ORATIO    OBLIQUA.  §67 

nec  quibus  rationibus  superare  possent,  sed  quemadmbdum 

uti  victoria  deberent  cogitabant,  nor  did  they  (the  army 

of  Pompey)  reflect  by  what  means  they  could  win  the  victory, 

but  in  what  manner  they  should  use  it.  —  Cses.  B.C.  III.  83. 

Thus  quid  quaeris  ?  (direct  question)  means,  what  do  you  askt 

scio  quid  quaeras  (indirect  question)   means,  /  know  what  you 

ask ;  scio  quod  quaeris   (direct  assertion)  means,  /  know  the 

thing  you  ask. 

NOTE.  —  Nescio   quis,   I  knoiv  not  who,  is  sometimes  used 

(generally  in   the  way  of  disparagement),  to  introduce  a  direct 

assertion ;   being  nearly  equivalent  to  aliquis  or  quidam,  some 

one :  as, 

quin  etiam  fuit  audiendus  Licinius  nescio  qui,  then  too  you 

had  to  listen  to  one  Licinius.  —  Cic.  Mil.  24. 
Nescio  an,  I  know  not  whether,  is  often  used  as  equivalent  to 

perhaps,  and  regularly  takes  the  subjunctive. 

2.  A  Declarative  sentence,  when  quoted,  takes  the  con- 
struction of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  the  subject 
being  put  in  the  accusative,  and  the  verb  in  the  appropriate 
tense  of  the  infinitive :  as, 

Crassus  valet,  Crassus  is  ivell ;  dicit  Crassum  valere,  he  says 

that  Crassus  is  well. 
scripsit  epistolam,  lie,  has  written  a  letter;  dicit  se  scripsisse 

epistolam,  he  says  he  has  written  a  letter. 

non  laetor,  /  am  not  glad;  nego  me  laetari,  I  say  lam  not  glad. 
mini  viieor  satis  et  esse  decs  et  quales  essent  ostendisse> 

/  think  1  have  shown  clearly  enough,  both  that  there  are  gods, 

and  of  what  nature  they  are.  — Cic.  N.D.  II.  28. 
Esse  here  expresses  an  indirect  statement ;  essent,  an  indirect 
question. 

The  principal  clause  of  a  Conditional  Sentence  (apodosis)  when 
indicative  in  the  Oratio  Recta,  follows  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua  the 
general  rule  for  Declarative  sentences  ;  but  when  subjunctive,  it 
is  represented  by  the  future  participle  with  esse  if  present  or  im- 
perfect, or  fuisse  if  pluperfect :  as, 
nisi  jurasset  scelus  se  facturum  arbitrabatur  fscelus  faceret], 

he  thought  he  would  incur  guilt  unless  he  should  take  the 

oath.  —  Cic.  Terr.  I.  47. 

Jt 


§67  ORATIO    OBLIQUA.  93 

jurant  ita  Ciceronem  locuturum  fuisse  [locutus  esset],  they 
swear  that  Cicero  would  have  spoken  so.  —  Quint.  X.  2,  17. 
NOTE. — The  subjunctive  is  not  used  as  a  principal  verb,  except 
in  the  apodosis  of  a  conditional  sentence. 

The   subject  of  the   Infinitive  is   sometimes  omitted,  when  it 

would  be  easily  understood  :  as, 

rogavi  pervenissentne  Agrigentum ;  dixit  perveiiisse  [sc. 
ea] ,  /  asked  whether  they  (the  curtains)  had  reached  Agri- 
gentum; he  answered  that  they  had.  —  Cic.  Verr.  IV.  12. 

II.  Subordinate  clauses  in  the  oratio  obliqua  take  the 
subjunctive,  the  tense  being  determined  by  that  of  the  prin- 
cipal verb  (see  §  57)  :  as, 

L.  Leiitiilus  consul  senatui  reique  publicae  se  non  defutu- 
runi  pollicetur,  si  audacter  ac  fortiter  seiiteiitias  di- 
cere  velint,  Lucius  Lentulus  the  consul  promises  not  to 
desert  the  Senate  and  the  republic,  if  they  are  willing  to 
speak  their  minds  boldly  and  bravely  (non  deero  ...  si 
voletis).  —  OSES.  B.C.  I.  1. 

adlatum  erat,  cum  in  Aetoliam  venisset  Antiochus,  ex- 
templo  classem  eum  in  Sicilian!  missurum,  word  had 
been  brought,  that  when  Antiochus  should  reach  JEtolia,  he 
would  at  once  send  his  fleet  to  Sicily  [cum  venerit  (fut. 
perf.  indie.)  mittet].  —  Liv.  XXXV.  23. 

Ariovistus  respondit:  si  quid  ipsi  a  Caesare  opus  esset, 
sese  ad  eum  veiiturum  fuisse ;  .  .  .  sibi  autem  mirum 
videri,  quid  in  sua  Gallia,  quam  bello  vicisset,  aut 
Caesari  aut  omnino  popiilo  Romano  negotii  esset, 
Ariovistus  answered,  that,  if  he  wanted  anything  of  Ccesai\ 
he  would  have  come  to  him ;  .  .  .  but  that  he  wondered  what 
concern  either  Cwsar  or  the  Roman  people  at  all  had  with 
his  Gaul,  which  he  had  conqiiered  in  ivar  [si  quid  opus 
esset  .  .  .  venissem;  .  .  .  mirum  videtur,  quid  in  mea 
Gallia,  quam  bello  vici,  .  .  .  Caesari  .  .  .  negotii  sit].— 
OES.  B.G.  I.  34. 

1.  An  Imperative  in  the  Oratio  Recta  becomes  a  subjunctive  in 
the  Oratio  Obliqua  :  as, 

lie  committeret,  let  him  not  bring  it  about  [ne  commiseris] .  — 
Cses.  B.G.  I.  13. 


94  ORATIO   OBLIQUA.  §67 

2.  A  Question  is  put  in  the  infinitive,  unless  in  the  second  per- 
son, in  which  case  it  becomes  subjunctive :  as, 

si  veteris  contumeliae  oblivisci  vellet,  num  etiam  recentium 
injuriarum  memoriam  [se]  deponere  posse?  ifJie  were 
willing  to  forget  the  ancient  disgrace,  could  he  also  lay 
aside  the  memory  of  recent  outrages  ?  [num  possim  ?]  — 
Cses.  E.G.  I.  14. 

quid  sibi  vellent?  what  did  they  wish?  [quid  vultis?]— Id.  44. 

III.  1.  A  future  infinitive    is    often   expressed   by  fore 
(futurum   esse)  ut  with   the  subjunctive ;   regularly  so  in 
passive  or  deponent  verbs  :  as, 

rebantur  enim  fore  ut  exercitus  imperatorem  perse  quere- 
tur,  for  they  thought  that  the  army  would  follow  the  com- 
mand. —  Cic.  N.D.  III.  6. 

nisi  nuiitii  de  Caesaris  victoria  esseiit  adlati,  existimabant 
plerique  futurum  fuisse  uti  amitteretur,  unless  news  of 
Caesar's  victory  had  been  brought,  many  thought  he  would 
have  been  lost.  —  Cses.  B.C.  III.  101. 

2.  After  verbs  signifying  hope,  promise,  and  the  like,  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive,  whether  a  noun  or  a  personal  or 
reflective  pronoun,  must  always  be  expressed  :  as, 

promisit  se  venturum,  lie  promised  to  come. 
sparat  se  negotium  confecturum,  lie  liopes  to  finish  the  busi- 
ness. 

But  where  there  is  no  future  participle,  fore  ut  with  the  sub- 
junctive must  be  used  :  as, 

sperat  fore  ut  possit,  he  liopes  to  be  able. 

pollicetur  fore  ut  frumentum  adferatur,  he  promises  that  corn 
shall  be  brought  (more  rarely,  adlatum  iri  or  fore) . 

IV.  1.  The  passive  of  verbs  of  saying,  &c.,  may  either  be 
used  impersonally,  followed  by  the  accusative  with  the  infini- 
tive ;  or  personally,  followed  by  the  infinitive  alone  :   as, 

primi  traduntur  arte  quadam  verba  vinxisse,  they  are  related 
to  have  been  the  first  to  combine  words  by  a  certain  art  [also, 
traditur  eos  primos,  etc.]  —  Cic.  Orat.  13. 


§68  WISHES   AND    COMMANDS.  95 

2.  The  infinitive  passive  may  be  used  impersonally  after 
these  verbs  :  as, 

in  eo  ipso  in  quo  praedicationem  nobilitatemque  despici- 
unt,  praedicari  de  se  ac  iiommari  volunt,  in  that  very 
work,  in  which  they  disparage  renown  and  celebrity,  they  de- 
sire that  they  may  be  renowned  and  named.  —  Cic.  Arch.  10. 

V.  After  a  comparison,  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  usually  con- 
tinued: as, 

iiullam  capitaliorem  pestem  quam  voluptatem  corporis  no- 
minibus  dicebat  a  natura  datam  [for  quam  voluptas] , 
he  said  that  no  more  deadly  evil  had  been  given  to  men  by 
nature  than  bodily  pleasure.  — Cic.  de  Senect.  12. 

68.     WISHES  AND  COMMANDS. 

I.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  wishes  ;  —  the  primary  tenses 
in  reference  to  future  time,  implying  that  the  thing  desired  is 
at  least  possible ;  the  secondary  to  express  a  hopeless  wish,  — 
the  imperfect  in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  in  past :  as, 
serus  in  caelum  redeas,  mayst  thou  return  late  to  the  skies.  — 

Hor.  Cann.  I.  2,  45. 
iitinam  me  mortuum  vidisses,   would  that  you  had  seen  me 

dead.  — Cic.  ad  Q.  Fr.  I.  3,  1. 

The  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  so  used  are  often  equiv- 
alent to  an  imperative  (see  §  58,  in.)  :  as, 
ne   semper   udum    Tibur  et  Aesiilae   declive   coiitempleris 

arvum,  do  not  for  ever  gaze  at  watery  Tibur  and  the  sloping 

fields  ofAesula.  —  Hor.  Carm.  III.  29,  6.    (See  §  58,  m.) 

II.  With  verbs  of  wishing  and  permitting  the  infinitive  is 
generally  used :  as, 

te  tua  frui  virtute  cupimus,  we  wish  you  to  reap  the  benefit  of 

your  virtue.  —  Cie.  Brut.  97. 
neu  sinas  Medos  equitare  multos,  nor  permit  the  Medes  to  make 

incursions  with  impunity .' — Hor.  Carm.  I.  2,  51. 
Bat  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  without  ut :  as, 
vellem  mos  esset,  /  ivish  it  were  the  custom.  —  Ter.  Ad.  IV.  1, 

16.     (§64,  iv.) 


96  RELATIVE   AND   SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.       §§69,70 

III.  Jubeo,  command,  takes  the  accusative  with  the  infini- 
tive ;  other  verbs  of  commanding,  the  dative  with  Tit  and  the 
subjunctive  :  as, 

omnem  senatum  ad  se  convemre  jussit,  lie  commanded  the 
entire  senate  to  come  to  him.  — Cses.  B.G.  II.  5. 

suis  imperavit  lie  quod  ommiio  telum  in  hostes  rejicerent, 
he  ordered  his  soldiers  to  cast  no  weapon  at  all  against  the 
enemy.  — Id.  I.  46. 

69.     SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  RELATIVE  CLAUSES. 

The  various  relative  clauses  have  been  already  treated  of, 
under  the  special  heads  to  which  they  belong.  They  may  be 
classed  under  the  following  titles  :  — 

1.  General  relatives  in  protasis,  §§  59,  60. 

2.  Temporal  clauses  (relative  adverbs  of  time),  §  62,  IV. 

3.  Relative  implying  a  Cause,  §  63,  n. 

4.  Relative  of  Purpose,  §  64,  i. 

5.  Relative  of  Consequence  or  Result,  §  65,  I.  &  iv. 

6.  Relative  in  Intermediate  Clauses,  §66. 

7.  Relative  clauses  in  oratio  obliqua,  §  67. 

NOTE.  —  In  general,  the  relative  with  a  definite  antecedent 
takes  the  indicative  in  direct  construction ;  with  an  indefinite  ante- 
cedent, the  subjunctive :  as, 

hi  sunt  qui  ita  putant,  these  are  they  that  think  so. 

sunt  qui  ita  putent,  there  are  some  who  think  so.     (§  65,  iv.  2.) 

70,     SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

A  Substantive  Clause  is  a  clause  or  phrase  —  usu- 
ally the  indicative  with  quod,  the  subjunctive  with  ut, 
or  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  —  which  is  con- 
strued like  a  noun,  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  leading 
verb. 

Under  this  head  are  included  the  accusative  and  infinitive  in 
Oratio  Obliqua  (§  67,  i.  2)  ;  also  clauses  following  verbs  of  wish- 
ing and  command  (§  68). 


§70  SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  97 

I.  Verbs  implying  motive  or  desire  generally  take  Tit  (lie) 
with  the  subjunctive  (see  §§  64,  65,  68)  :  as, 

concedo  tibi  ut  ea  praetereas,  /  allow  you  to  pass  over  these 
points. — Cic.  Rose.  Am.  19. 

When  verbs  of  this  class  are  used  for  a  mere  expression  of 
opinion,  they  take  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  :  as, 
concede  non  esse  miseros  qui  mortui  sint,  /  grant  that  those 
who  are  dead  are  not  miserable.  —  Cic.  Tusc.  I.  7. 

II.  Impersonal  verbs,  and  other  expressions  denoting  hap- 
pening and  existence,  take  a  subjunctive  introduced  by  ut 
(ut  non),  as  subject  (see  §  65)  :  as, 

sequitur  ut  cuj usque  generis  nota  quaeratur,  it  follows  that 
the  mark  of  each  class  should  be  sought.  — Cic.  Orat.  23. 

accidit  ut  esset  plena  luna,  it  chanced  to  be  full  moon.  —  Caes. 
E.G.  IV.  29. 

accedit  ut  conturber,  another  point  is  that  I  am  disturbed.  —  Cic. 
Deiot.  1. 

mos  est  hbmiiium  ut  nolint  euiidem  pluribus  rebus  excel- 
lere,  it  is  the  custom  of  men  to  be  unwilling  to  admit  that 
the  same  person  excels  in  several  respects.  — Id.  Brut.  21. 

III.  Verbs  of  satisfaction  and  wonder,  and  impersonal 
expressions   denoting  fitness,  take  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive:  as, 

quae  perfecta  esse  gaudeo,  vehementerque  laetor,  I  rejoice 
and  greatly  exult  that  these  things  have  been  accomplished. 
—  Cic.  Rose.  Am.  47. 

accusatores  multos  esse  in  civitate  utile  est,  it  is  advantage- 
ous that  there  be  many  accusers  in  a  state.  — Id.  20. 

IV.  ftuod  with  the  indicative  is  used  to  indicate  the  ex- 
istence of  a  state  of  things,  and  at  the  same  time  express  a 
judgment  (compare  §  63,  i.)  :  as, 

gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  1  rejoice  that  I  interrupted  you.  — 

Cic.  Legg.  III.  1. 
noli  piitare  pigritia  me  facere,  quod  non  mea  maim  scribo, 

do  not  think  that  it  is  through  indolence  that  2  do  not  write 

with  my  own  hand.  — Id.  Att.  XVI.  15. 
5 


98  QUESTIONS.  §71 

71.     QUESTIONS. 

Questions  are  introduced  by  interrogative  Pronouns 
or  Adverbs,  or  by  the  interrogative  Particles  num,  utrum, 
an,  and  the  Enclitic  -ne. 

An  Enclitic  is  a  particle  joined  in  spelling  to  the  preceding 
word,  but  retaining  its  independent  meaning. 

I.  The  enclitic  -ne  is  used  in  questions  asked  for  informa- 
tion merely ;    nonne  when  the  answer  yes,  and  num  when 
the  answer  no,  is  expected :  as, 

qui  sunt  hi?  who  are  they? —  Cic.  Rose.  27. 

memmistisne  ?  do  you  remember  %  — Id.  28. 

nonne  his  vestigiis  ad  caput  maleficii  pervemri  solet?  is 

it  not  customary  to  come  by  these  traces  to  the  source  of  a 

crime? —  Id.  27. 
num  dubium  est  ?  is  there  any  doubt  ?  —  Id.  37. 

The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted :  as, 
patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis  ?  do  you  not  perceive  that  your 
plans  lie  open.  —  Cic.  Cat.  I.  1. 

II.  In  double  questions,  utrnm  or  -ne  stands  in  the  first 
member,  an  (annon,  necne),  in  the  second :  as, 

utrum  has  corporis  an  Pythagbrae  tibi  malis  vires  ingenii 
dari?  would  you  rather  this  strength  of  body  should  be 
given  you,  or  the  strength  of  intellect  of  Pythagoras  ?  —  Cic. 
de  Senect.  10. 

quaere  servosne  an  liberos,  I  ask  whether  slaves  or  free.  — 
Id.  Rose.  Am.  27. 

The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted  in  the  first  mem- 
ber: as, 

sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  ?  are  these  your  words  or  not  ?  — 
Cic.  Tusc.  III.  18. 

Sometimes  the  first  member  is  omitted,  and  an  alone  asks  a 
question  with  indignation  or  surprise  :  as, 

an  tu  miseros  piitas  illos?  do  you  think  that  those  men  are 
miserable  ?  —  Cic.  Tusc.  I.  7. 


§§  72, 73  PARTICIPLES.  —  GERUND.  99 

72.     PARTICIPLES. 

The  time  of  participles,  like  that  of  infinitives,  is 
relative  to  that  of  the  verbs  upon  which  they  depend. 

1.  Participles   are  often  used  where  the  English  idiom 
would  require  a  subordinate  clause :  as, 

venienti  in  Ligiires  Hanmbali  duo  quaestores  Roman!  tra- 
duntur,  as  Hannibal  is  entering  among  the  Ligurians,  two 
Eoman  qucestors  are  given  into  Ms  hands.  — Liv.  XXI.  59. 

instructos  ordmes  in  locum  aequum  deducit,  he  draws  up  the 
lines,  and  leads  them  into  a  favorable  place.  —  Sail.  Cat.  59. 
See  examples  in  §  25,  page  27. 

2.  Sometimes  a  perfect  participle  agreeing  with  a  noun  is 
used  when  the  action  rather  than  the  thing  is  to  be  made 
prominent :  as, 

ab  urbe  condita,  from  the  founding  of  the  city.  —  Liv.  (title). 

3.  As  there  is  no  perfect  active  participle  in  Latin,  the 
perfect  passive,  used  absolutely  with  the  noun  which  would 
have  been  the  object,  is  used  to  express  active  relations :  as, 
his  initis  consiliis  oppida  muniuiit,  having  formed  these  plans, 

they  fortify  their  toivns.  —  Cass.  E.G.  III.  9. 
See,  respecting  the  Ablative  Absolute,  §  54,  vni. 

73.     GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE. 

The  Gerund  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb ;  in 
grammatical  construction  it  follows  the  same  rules 
with  nouns.  But  where  the  gerund  would  have  an 
object  in  the  accusative,  the  gerundive  is  regularly 
used  instead,  agreeing  with  the  noun,  and  in  the  case 
which  the  gerund  would  have  had :  as, 

paratiores  ad  omiiia  pericula  subeunda,   better  prepared  to 

meet  all  dangers.  — Caes.  E.G.  I.  5. 

Subeunda  agrees  with  pericula,  which  is  governed  by  ad; 
the  construction  with  the  gerund  would  be  ad  subeundum  omnia 
pericula,  ad  governing  the  gerund,  and  the  gerund  governing  the 
accusative  pericula. 


100  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE.  §73 

I.  The  nominative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  construed 
with  the  dative  of  persons,  implying  obligation  or  duty :  as, 
pugnandum  est  nobis,  we  must  fight,  —  i.e.  fighting  is  our  busi- 
ness, or  it  belongs  to  us  to  fight  (compare  §  51,  vi.,  vin.). 

Caesari  omnia  iino  tempore  erant  agenda,  Ccesar  had  every- 
thing to  do  at  once.  —  Caes.  B.G.  II.  20. 

jiiveni  parandum  seni  utendum  est,  it  is  for  the  young  to 
get,  for  the  old  to  enjoy.  —  Sen.  Ep.  36. 

The  Infinitive  is  also  used  as  a  verbal  noun,  like  the  Gerund, 
taking  the  Genitive,  or  the  neuter  of  the  Possessive,  to  express  pos- 
session or  duty  (§  50,  I.  1.),  while  the  Gerund  takes  the  Dative  :  as, 
sapientis  est  parcius  bibere ;  or,  sapient!  est  parcius  biben- 
dum,  it  is  for  a  wise  man  to  drink  rather  sparingly. 

Where  the  use  of  the  dative  as  agent  would  be  ambiguous  — 
as  in  verbs  governing  the  dative  —  a  different  construction  must 
be  used :  thus, 
ei  parcendum  est  means  either  he  must  spare  or  he  must  be 

spared ;  but  ei  parcendum  est  a  nobis,  he  must  be  spared 

by  us. 

II.  The  genitive  is  construed   as   an   objective  genitive 
(§  50,  in.),  following  nouns  and  adjectives  :  .as, 

neque  consilii  habendi  neque  arma  capiendi  spatio  dato, 
time  being  given  neither  for  forming  plans  nor  for  taking 
arms.  —  Cszs.  B.G.  IV.  14. 

It  is  used  especially  "with  causa  or  gratia  to  express  the 

purpose  of  an  action:  as, 

dissimulandi  causa  aut  sui  expurgandi,  for  the  sake  of  dis- 
sembling or  of  excusing  himself.  —  Sail.  Cat.  31. 

Or  even  alone,  the  word  causa  being  understood :  as, 

impediendae  rei,  in  order  to  give  check.  —  Cses.  B.C.  I.  82. 
The  gerund  is  sometimes  used  with  the  genitive  of  an  object 

not  agreeing  with  it  in  gender  or  number :  as, 

sui  liberandi  facultas,^e  opportunity  of  getting  themselves  clear. 
—  Goes.  B.G.  IV.  34. 

ego  ejus  videndi  cupidus,  recta  consequor,  eager  to  see  her, 
I  follow  straight.  —  Ter.  Hec.  III.  3,  12. 


§74  SUPINE.  101 

III.  The  dative  follows  words  expressing  purpose  or  fit- 
ness :  as, 

comitia  consulibus  creandis,  comitia  for  appointing  consuls.  — 
Liv.  XXXV.  24.  (Gerund,  consules  creando.) 

te  sbciani  stiideo  scribendis  versibus  esse,  1  desire  tliat  tliou 
[Venus]  be  my  partner  in  writing  verses.  —  Lucr.  I.  25. 

It  is  used  especially  to  designate  the  functions  of  magistrates  : 
as, 

decemviri  stlitibus  [litibus]  judicandis,  the  Board  of  ten  for 
determining  lawsuits. 

IV.  The  accusative  follows  the  prepositions  ad,  inter,  and 
ob  (occasionally  ante,  circa,  in)  :  as, 

me  vocas  ad  scribeiidum,  you  invite  me  to  write. — Cic.  Orat.  10. 
nactus  aditus  ad  ea  conanda,  having  found  means  to  under- 
take these  things.  —  Cses.  B.C.  I.  31. 

V.  The  ablative  is  used  after  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex, 
and  in  ;  or  to  express  manner  or  means  :  as, 

in  quaereiidis  suis,  in  seeking  his  own  comrades. — Caes.  E.G. 

II.  21   (Gerund,  in  quaerendo  suos). 
mtilta  pollicendo  persuadet,  he  persuades  by  large  promises.  — 

Sail.  Jug.  46. 

74.     SUPINE. 

I.  The  Former  Supine  (in  um)  follows  verbs  of  motion 
to  express  the  purpose  of  the  motion"  (compare  §  55,  m.  2)  : 
as, 

quid  est,  Crasse,  inquit  Julius,  imusne  sessum?  etsi  admoiii- 
tum  veiiimus  te  non  flagitatum,  what  now,  Crassus,  said 
Julius,  shall  we  take  our  seats  ?  although  we  have  come  to 
remind,  not  to  entreat  you.  —  Cic.  de  Orat.  III.  5. 

II.  The  Latter   Supine   (in  u)   is   found   only  in  a  few 
verbs,  especially  those  which  express  telling,  hearing,  and  the 
like.     It  has  a  passive  sense,  and  follows  certain  adjectives 
which  describe  the  character  of  the  action  :  as, 

difficile  est  dictu,  it  is  hard  to  say  [in  the  telling].  —  Cic.  de 
Lege  Manil.  22. 


102          GENERAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX.          §75 

75.     GENERAL  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

I.   A  Noun  used  to  describe  another  agrees  with  it  in  Case 

(APPOSITION)  .  —  §  46. 

II.   Adjectives  agree  with  Nouns   in   Gender,  Number,   and 
Case.  —  §  47. 

III.  Relatives  agree  with  their  Antecedents  in  Gender,  Num- 

ber, and  Person.  —  §  48. 

IV.  A  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  Nominative  in  Number  and 

Person.  —  §49. 
V.    The  Genitive  is  used  — 

1.  (Subjective)  to  define  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a  Noun. 

—  §50.1. 

2.  (Partitive)  to  denote  the  Whole  after  words  signifying  a 

Part.  —  Id.  n. 

3.  (Objective)  after  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Verbs,  espe- 

cially those  implying  mental  action  or  emotion.  —  Id. 

III.,  IV. 

VI.   The  Dative  is  used  — 

1.  After  words  implying  Advantage  or  Disadvantage.  — 


2.  As  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object.  —  Id.  n. 

3.  After  many  compounds  of  Prepositions.  —  Id.  v. 

4.  With  esse,  to  denote  Possession  or  Purpose.  —  Id.  vi. 

VIII. 

VII.   The  Accusative  is  the  case  — 

1.  Of  the  Direct  Object.  —  §  52,  i. 

2.  Of  the  Secondary  Object  after  many  verbs.  —  Id.  in. 

3.  As  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive.  —  Id.  vi. 
VIII.   The  Ablative  is  used  — 

1.  To  express  Cause,  Means,  and  Specification.  —  §54,  i. 

2.  With  an  Adjective,  to  express  Manner  or  Quality.  — 

Id.  n. 

3.  As  the  Object  after  certain  Verbs  and   Adjectives,— 

Id.  in. 

4.  After  Comparatives.  —  Id.  v. 

5.  Afterwords  of  Separation,  Plenty,  and  Want.  —  Id.  vr. 

6.  Of  Subject  and  Predicate,  in  Apposition  (Ablative  Abso* 

lute).—  Id.  x. 


§76  ARRANGEMENT.  103 

* 
IX.   Time  when  takes  the  ablative  ;  time  how  long  and  distance 

kowfar  the  accusative.  —  §  55,  i.,  n. 
X.   Relations  of  Place  are  expressed  without  prepositions,  in 

the  names  of  Towns  and  small  Islands.  —  Id.  in. 
XI.  Twenty-six  Prepositions  govern  the  accusative ;  eleven  the 

ablative. —  §  56,  i. 

XII.   The  Agent,  after  the  passive  voice,  is  expressed  by  the 
ablative  with  ab.  —  Id.  iv. 

XIII.  In  Compound  Sentences,  a  primary  tense  is  followed  by  a 

primary,  and  a  secondary  tense  by  a  secondary. — §  57. 

XIV.  The  Indicative  Mood  is  regularly  employed  for  the  leading 

verb,  and  the  Subjunctive  in  dependent   clauses.  — 
§  58,  i.  n. 

XV.    The  Infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  Subject  or  as  the  Object 
of  the  leading  verb.  —  Id.  iv. 

XVI.  The  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Accusative.  — 

§  52,  vi. ;  §  67,  i.  2. 

XVII.  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  govern  the  case  of  their 

own  verbs ;  but  in  grammatical  construction  they  fol- 
low the  rules  of  nouns  and  adjectives.  —  §§  72,  73,  74. 
For  a  summary  of  the  uses  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  §  58,  n. 


76.     ARRANGEMENT. 

The  Arrangement  of  words  in  a  Latin  sentence  is  not  arbi- 
trary, but  depends  greatly  on  the  skill  of  the  writer  to  give 
emphasis,  harmony,  and  clearness. 

In  general,  the  Subject  stands  first,  and  the  Verb  last,  in 
the  sentence  or  clause  to  which  they  belong.  The  Object 
commonly  precedes  pretty  closely  the  verb  which  governs  it. 
A  relative  clause  often  goes  before  that  containing  the  ante- 
cedent, especially  when  any  stress  is  laid  upon  it.  "  In  all 
ordinary  cases,  the  adjective  follows  the  noun,  the  genitive  its 
governing  substantive,  and  the  apposition  the  word  which  it 
qualifies." 

The  most  emphatic  words  in  a  sentence  are  the  first  and 
the  last ;  but  emphasis  is  given  by  any  unusual  arrangement 
of  the  words. 


104  ARRANGEMENT.  §76 

Thus  the  usual  order  of  words  to  express  the  phrase,  tlie  work- 
man built  me  a  house,  would  be  :  artifex  mlhi  domum  aedif  ica- 
vit.  But  either  domum,  aedificavit,  or  mihi  may  be  emphasized 
by  being  put  first ;  and  artifex,  by  being  put  last. 

If  care  is  taken,  in  reading  Latin  aloud, — observing  both 
emphasis  and  quantity  as  well  as  accent,  —  to  bring  out  the  sense 
and  balance  of  the  parts,  it  will  be  seen  that  great  skill  has  been 
exercised  in  this  particular  by  the  classical  writers. 

Latin  expresses  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other  by 
inflection^  rather  than  by  position,  like  modern  languages. 
Hence  its  structure  not  only  admits  of  great  variety  in  the 
arrangement  of  words,  but  is  especially  favorable  to  that  form 
of  sentence  which  is  called  a  Period.  In  a  period,  the  sense 
is  expressed  by  the  sentence  as  a  whole ,  and  is  held  in  sus- 
pense till  the  delivery  of  the  last  word,  which  usually  ex- 
presses the  main  action  or  motive.  A  careful  attention  to 
examples  quoted  in  the  Syntax  will  show  the  flexibility  and 
force  that  can  be  given  to  the  language  in  this  way. 

An  English  sentence  does  not  often  admit  this  form  of 
structure.  It  was  imitated,  sometimes  with  great  skill  and 
beauty,  by  many  of  the  early  writers  of  English  prose ;  but 
its  effect  is  better  seen  in  poetry,  in  such  a  passage  as  the 
following :  — 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat." 

Paradise  Lost,  Book  II.  1-5, 


PART     THIED. 

RULES  OF   VERSE.     (PROSODY.) 


77.     RHYTHM. 

The  poetry  of  the  ancients  was  not  governed,  like  modern 
poetry,  by  accent  and  rhyme ;  but  was  measured,  like  music, 
by  the  length  of  the  syllables,  or  vowel  sounds.  The  meas- 
ured flow  of  verse  is  called  Rhythm. 

Each  syllable  is  considered  as  either  long  or  short,  —  in 
quantity  or  length,  not  in  quality  or  sound  ;  a  long  syllable 
being  reckoned  in  length  equal  to  two  short  ones. 

The  quantity  of  radical  or  stem-syllables,  as  of  short  a  in 
pater  or  of  long  a  in  mater,  can  be  learned  only  by  observa- 
tion or  practice,  unless  determined  by  the  general  rules  of 
quantity. 

A  radical  vowel,  when  not  made  short  or  long  under  the 
general  rules  of  quantity,  is  said  to  be  determined  by  the 
Authority  of  the  poets. 

78.     RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

NOTE.  -^The  Rules  of  Quantity  do  not  in  all  cases  apply  to 
numerous  Greek  words,  especially  proper  names,  which  have  been 
introduced  by  the  Latin  poets. 

I.     GENERAL  RULES.     (See  §3,  p.  3.) 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short* 
EXAMPLES,     via,  way  ;  traho,  draw. 

5* 


106  RULES   OF   QUANTITY.  §78 

EXCEPTIONS.  In  the  genitive  form  ins,  i  is  common,  but  has 
the  accent :  as  in  nulli'us,  ipsi'us  ;  but  it  is  long  in  alms. 

In  fio  i  is  long,  except  when  followed  by  er:  as,  flam,  fierem. 

In  the  fifth  declension,  e  is  long  between  two  vowels :  as  in 
diei ;  but  after  a  consonant,  as  in  fidei,  it  is  short. 

In  many  Greek  proper  names  the  vowel  in  Latin  represents  a 
long  vowel  or  diphthong,  and  is  consequently  long :  as  in  Thalia. 

2.  A  diphthong  is  long  :  as  in  foedus,  cui,  delude. 

Exc.  The  preposition  prae  in  composition  before  a  vowel  is 
generally  short:  as  in  praeustis.  —  ^En.  VII.  524. 

3.  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  is  long :  as  i  in  nil  for 
nih.il. 

4.  A  vowel  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant, 
also  before  the  letter  j,  is  long  :  as,  magnus,  great  ;  rex,  king  ; 
pejor,  worse  ;  et  ventis  ocior,  and  swifter  than  winds. 

But  a  short  vowel  before  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r  is 
common,  —  that  is,  it  may  be  long  in  verse  :  as  in  vblucris, 
bird, 

A  short  vowel,  made  long  under  this  rule,  is  said  to  be  long  by 
Position ;  as  e  in  docetne.  In  dbcesne,  the  same  vowel  is  long 
by  the  special  rule  (n.  3). 

NOTE.  —  The  above  rules  of  Position  do  not  apply  to  final 
vowels. 

II.       FlN4LMS\T;L^iiES. 

1.  Words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long :  as, 
me,  tu,  hi,  ne. 

The  attached  particles  -ne,  -que,  -ve,  -ce,  -pte,  and  re-  (red-), 
are  short ;  se-  is  long :  as,  secedit  exercitumque  reducit,  he 
withdraws,  and  leads  back  the  army. 

2.  Nouns  of  one  syllable  are  long :  as,  sol,  sun  ;  OS,  mouth  ; 
bos,  ox;  vis,  force. 

Exc.   mel,  honey ;  6s,  bone;  vir,  man ;  cor,  heart;  fel,  gall. 

3.  Final  as,  es,  OS,  are  long :  final  is,  US,  ys,  are  short : 
as,  nefas,  wrong ;  rupes,  rock  ;  hcstls,  enemy. 


§78  RULES   OF   QUANTITY.  107 

Exc.  as  is  short  in  some  Greek  terminations :  as,  lampadas, 
torches. 

es  is  short  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension  whose  stem  ends  in 
d  or  t:  as,  hospes,  guest  (exc.  abies,  aries,  paries,  pes)  ;  in  the 
present  of  esse,  and  in  the  preposition  penes. 

os  is  short  in  compos,  impos,  and  some  Greek  endings. 

is  in  plural  cases  is  long :  as  in  boms ;  also,  as  the  character- 
istic ending  of  the  fourth  conjugation :  as  audis ;  and  in  sis,  vis, 
veils,  malls,  nolis ;  gratis,  foris  ;  and  sometimes  in  -eris. 

us  is  long  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  in  the  plural  of  the  fourth  de- 
clension :  as  acus,  needles ;  also  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension 
which  increase  long  :  as  virtus. 

4.  Most  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant  except  C  are 
short :  as,  ad,  ac,  at,  amat,  amatur. 

Exc.  donee .  fac,  nee  ;  non,  quin,  sin ;  eras,  plus,  cur,  par. 

5.  Final  a  in  words  declined  is  short,  except  in  the  abl. 
sing,  feminine :  as,  ea  stella,  that  star  ;  cum  ea  Stella,  with 
that  star. 

In  all  other  words  it  is  long  :  as,  frustra,  in  vain  ;  voca, 
call 

Exc.  ita,  so;  quia,  because;  puta,  suppose;  and,  in  late  use, 
triginta,  thirty,  etc. 

6.  Final  e  is  short,  except  in  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ; 
in  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first  form  ;  and  in 
verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  :   as,  nave,   duclte,   vere, 
mane,  fide,  quare  (qua  re),  hodie  (hoc  die). 

Exc.  fame;  bene,  male;  fere,  ferme ;  also  (rarely),  cave, 
habe,  tace,  vale,  vide;  inferne,  supernS. 

7.  Final  i  is  long :  as,  navi,  fill,  audi.    But  it  is  common 
in  mlhi,  tibi,  slbi,  Ibi,  ubi  ;  and  short  in  nisi,  quasi,  cul. 

8.  Final  0  is  common  ;  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives ; 
also,  usually,  in  verbs. 

Exc.    cito,  illico,  profecto,  dummodo,  imo,  ego,  du5,  octo. 

9.  Final  U  is  long  ;  final  y  is  short. 


108  RULES   OP   QUANTITY.  §7& 

III.     PENULTIMATE  SYLLABLES. 

DEFINITION.  —  A  Noun  is  said  to  Increase,  when  in  any 
case  it  has  more  syllables  than  in  the  nominative  singular, 
which  is  called  the  Theme. 

Thus  Stella  is  said  to  increase  long  in  the  gen.  pi.,  stellarum; 
and  corpus,  to  increase  short  in  the  gen.  sing.,  corpbris. 

A  Verb  is  said  to  increase,  when  in  any  part  it  adds  more 
than  one  syllable  to  the  root  or  stem. 

Thus  voco  is  said  to  increase  long  in  the  second  person  plu- 
ral, vocatis ;  and  rego  to  increase  short  in  the  second  person 
plural,  regitis. 

The  final  syllable,  added  to  the  root  or  stem,  is  called  the 
Termination  :  as  in  stell-a,  nav-is,  voc-at,  reg-is, 

The  syllable  added  before  the  termination  is  called  the 
Increment :  as,  a  in  stellarum,  o  in  corporis, 

In  itrneribus,  amaveritis,  the  syllables  marked  are  called  the 
first,  second,  and  third  Increments  of  the  noun  or  verb. 

In  a  few  words,  the  root  consists  only  of  a  consonant,  or  com- 
bination of  consonants,  from  which  the  radical  vowel  has  been 
dropped:  as,  scmius,  siinius  (es). 

1.  In  the  Increment  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives,  a  and  0  are 
generally  long ;  e,  i,  U,  y,  are  generally  short :  as, 
aetatis,  servorum,  honoris,  operis,  carmmis,  murmuris,  pecu- 
dis,  chlamydis. 

Exc.  a  in  baccar  (-aris),  hepar  (-atis),  jubar,  lar,  mas  (ma- 
ris),  nectar,  par,  sal,  vas  (vadis),  daps  (dapis). 

6  in  neuters  of  third  declension;  also  in  arbor  (-oris),  mops 
(-opis),  scrobs  (scrobis). 

e  in  the  fifth  declension;  also  in  haeres  (-edis),  lex  (legis), 
locuples  (-etis),  merces  (-edis),  plebs  (plebis),  quies  (-etis), 
rex  (regis),  ver  (veris). 

I  in  most  nouns  and  adjectives  in  ix:  as,  radicis,  felicis  (exc. 
filix,  nix,  strix)  ;  also  dis  (ditis),  glis  (gliris),  lis  (Htis),  vis 
(vires),  Quirites,  Samnites. 

u  in  lux  (lucis),  frux  (frugis)  ;  also  in  forms  from  nom.  in 
us:  as,  paludis,  telluris. 


§78  EULES   OP   QUANTITY.  109 

2.  In  the  Increment  of  Verbs  (see  Tables  of  Inflection, 
pp.  34-37),  the  characteristic  vowels  are  as  follows  :  — 

Of  the  first  conjugation  a  :  as,  vocare,  vocatur. 
Of  the  second  conjugation  e  :  as,  monere,  monetur. 
Of  the  third  conjugation  e,  i :  as,  regere,  regitur. 
Of  the  fourth  conjugation  I :  as,  audire,  audltur. 
Exc.  do  and  its  compounds  have  a :  as,  dare,  circumdabat. 

In  other  increments  — 

a  is  always  long :  as,  monearis,  regamus. 

e  is  long  in  tense-endings  :  as,  regebam,  audiebar. 

But  it  is  short  before   ram,   rim,   ro ;    and  in   the  personal 
endings  -beris,  -bere  :  as, 
rexerat,  rexerit,  amaberis,  moiiebere. 

I  is  long  in  forms  after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth  conjuga- 
tion :  as,  petlvi,  lacessitum. 

Also  in  simus,  sitis,  velimus,  and  rarely  in  the  terminations 
-rimus  and  -ritis ;  but  short  in  the  future  of  the  first  and  second 
conjugations :  as,  vocabitis. 

o  is  found  only  in  imperatives,  and  is  always  long :  as, 
mbnitote. 

u  is  found  only  in  the  supine  stem  and  its  derivatives,  and 
is  always  long :  as  in  soluturus ;  except  in  sumus,  futurus, 
volumus,  nolunms,  maltmms. 

3.  Perfects  and  Supines  of  two  syllables  have  the  stem- 
8}  liable  long  :  as,  f  ugi,  vidi,  visum,  from  f  iigio,  video. 

Exc.  bib-  ded-  (do),  fid-  (findo),  scid-  (scindo),  stet- 
(sto),  stit-  (sisto),  till-  (fero)  ;  cit-  (cieo),  dat-  (do),  it-  (eo), 
lit-  (lino),  quit-  (queo),  rat-  (reor),  nit-  (ruo),  sat-  (sero), 
sit-  (sino) ,  stat-  (sisto)  ;  but  stat-  from  sto. 

4.  The  root  or  stem-syllable  generally  retains  its  quantity 
through  all  the  forms  derived  from  it ;  but  when  doubled  by 
reduplication  (see  pp.  33,  39),  the  first  syllable  is  short:  as, 
tiilit,  attulerat ;  vidi,  viderit ;  cado,  cecidit ;  caedo,  cecidit. 

Exc.  dico  (die-),  duco  (duo),  fides  (fid-);  and  some  in- 
crements of  nouns:  as,  legis  (leg-),  vocis  (voc-). 


110  RULES   OP   QUANTITY.  §78 

5.  The  following  terminations  are  preceded  by  a  long 
vowel :  — 

i.  -al,  -ar :  as,  vectigal,  pulvlnar. 
Exc.  animal,  capital,  jiibar. 

n.  -brum,  -crum,  -trum :  as,  lavacrum,  delubrum,  vera- 
trum, 

in.  -do,  -ga,  -go :  as,  formido,  auriga,  Imago. 

Exc.  cado,  divide,  edo,  modo,  solido,  spado,  trepido; 
caliga,  fiiga,  toga,  plaga ;  ago,  ego. 

iv.  -le,  -les,  -lis:  as,  ancile,  miles,  crudelis,  hostilis. 

Exc.  male;  indoles,  soboles ;  gracilis,  hiimilis,  similis 
sterilis ;  and  verbal  adjectives  in  ills :  as,  amabilis,  dociiis 
facilis. 

v.  -ma,  -men,  -mentum :  as,  poema,  flumen,  jumentnm. 

Exc.  anima,  lacrima,  victima ;  tamen,  columeii ;  with 
regimen  and  the  like  from  verb-stems. 

vi.  -mus,  -nus,  -rus,  -sus,  -tus :  as,  extremus,  supinus, 
octoni,  severus,  fumosus,  peritus. 

Exc.  (a.)  i  before  -mus :  as,  f  initimus,  maritimus  (except 
bimus,  trimus,  quadrimus,  opimus,  mimus,  limus)  ;  arid  in 
superlatives  (except  imus,  primus)  ;  domus,  hiimus,  nemus, 
calamus,  thalamus. 

(b.)  I  before  -nus  :  as  in  crastmus,  fraxinus  and  the  like  (ex- 
cept matutmus,  vespertmus,  repentmus)  ;  asinus,  commus, 
emmus,  dominus,  f  acinus,  protinus,  terminus,  vaticmus ; 
maiius,  oceanus,  platanus ;  genus ;  bonus,  onus,  sonus. 

(c.)  e  before  -rus :  as,  merus,  hedera  (except  procerus, 
sincerus,  severus)  ;  also  barbarus,  chorus,  niirus,  pirus ;  satira, 
amphora,  ancora,  lyra,  purpura ;  forum,  parum. 

(d.)  latus,  me  tus,  vetus,  digitus,  servitus,  spiritus ;  quo- 
tus,  tbtus  ;  habitus,  and  the  like. 

vn.  -na,  -ne,  -nis :  as,  carina,  mane,  inanis. 

Exc.  advena,  domlna,  foemina,  machma,  mma,  gena,  pagi- 
na ;  bene,  sine  ;  caiiis,  cinis,  jiivenis. 


§  73  FEET.  Ill 

viii.  -re,  -ris,  -ta,  -tis :  as,  altare,  salutaris,  moneta,  im- 
mitis. 

Exc.  mare,  hilaris,  rota,  nota,  sitis,  potis,  and  most  nouns 
in  -Ita. 

ix.  -tim,  -turn,  and  syllables  beginning  with  v  :  as,  priva- 
tim,  quereetum,  oliva. 

Exc.  aff  atim,  statim ;  nivis  (nix)  ;  brevis,  gravis,  levis 
(light) ;  novus,  novem  ;  and  several  verb-roots  :  as,  jiivo,  f  aveo. 

x.  -dex,  -lex,  -mex,  -rex,  -dix,  -nix,  and  the  numeral 
endings  -ginti,  -ginta :  as,  judex,  ilex. 

Exc.   ciilex,  silex,  rumex. 

6.  The  following  terminations  are  preceded  by  a  short 
vowel :  — 

1.  -cus,  -dus,  -lus :  as,  rustleus,  calldus,  gladiolus. 

Exc.  opacus,  amicus ;  apricus,  f  icus,  meiidicus,  piidicus ; 
fidus,  nidus,  sidus ;  and  u  before  -dus:  as,  crudus,  iiudus; 
e  before  -lus,  as  phaselus  (except  gelus,  scelus) ;  asilus. 

ii.  -no,  -nor,  -ro,  -ror,  in  verbs :  as,  destino,  crimmor, 
gero,  queror. 

Exc.  festmo,  propmo,  sagino,  bpmor,  incline ;  declare, 
spero,  spiro,  oro,  duro,  miror. 

in.  -ba,  -bo,  -pa,  -po :  as,  f  aba,  bibo,  lupa,  crepo. 

Exc.  gleba,  scriba ;  bubo,  nubo,  scribo  ;  papa,  pupa,  ripa, 
scopa,  stupa;  capo,  repo,  stipo. 

iv.  -tas  (in  nouns),  -ter  and  -tus  (in  adverbs)  :  as,  Civi- 
tas,  fortiter,  penltus. 

The  above  rules  and  exceptions  include  all  Latin  words  in 
common  use. 

79.     FEET. 

The  most  natural  division  of  musical  time  is  into  intervals, 
consisting  of  either  two  or  three  equal  parts.  In  music,  this 
is  called  double  or  triple  time. 

These  intervals  are  in  music  called  Measures  ;  in  prosody, 
they  are  called  Feet ;  and  the  parts  are  indicated  by  the 
number  or  length  of  the  syllables  of  which  the  feet  consist. 


112 


FEET. 


§79 


The  feet  most  frequently  employed  in  Latin  poetry,  with 
their  musical  notation,  are  the  following  :  — 


'•I 

2.  A 

'•i 

4.4 


»-i 

«-t 

'•i 


9-i 

10. 

11. 


rr 


kk! 

000 


000 

i/!    1 


OF  TWO  SYLLABLES. 
Pyrrich  :  as,  lapis. 
Trochee  (choree)  :  as,  carus. 
Iambus  :  as,  bonos. 
Spondee  :  as,  ventos. 

OF  THREE  SYLLABLES. 

I  Dactyle  :  as,  attiilit. 

I  Anapaest:  as,  dommos. 

I  Amphibrach  :  as,  videntis. 

I  Tribrach  :  as,  hommis. 

I  Molossus:  as,  duxerunt  (rare). 

I  Amphimacer  (Cretic)  :  as,  egerant  (rare). 

I  Bacchms  :  as,  regebant. 


Feet  of  four  syllables  are  combinations  of  those  of  two. 
The  following  only  require  special  notice. 

12.      -      *      *  *      Choriambus  :  as,  contulerant. 


13. 


Greater  Ionic:  as,  conjecerat. 
Lesser  Ionic:  as,  retulissent. 


\    '  *  ' 

14'   4    I  *  *  f  f 

The  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  Epitritus  has  a  short  syllable 
in  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  place,  with  three  long  syllables. 

The  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  Paeon  has  a  long  syllable  in 
the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  place,  with  three  short  syllables. 

NOTE.  —  Narrative  poetry  was  written  for  rhythmical  recita- 
tion, or  chant  :  and  Lyrical  poetry  for  rhythmical  melody,  or  music, 
often  to  be  accompanied  by  measured  movements,  or  dance.  But 
in  reading,  it  is  not  usual  to  keep  the  strict  measure  of  time  ;  and 
often  the  accent  is  substituted  for  rhythm,  as  in  prose. 


§80  SCANNING.  113 

The  accented  syllable  of  each  foot  is  called  the  Arsis  ;  and 
the  unaccented  part,  the  Thesis. 

Accent,  in  prosody,  is  called  Ictus,  —  that  is,  the  beat  of  the 
foot,  as  in  dancing. 

A  rhetorical  pause  occurring  within  the  limits  of  a  verse  is 
called  Csesu'ra. 

The  position  in  the  verse  of  the  principal  Caesura  is  important, 
as  affecting  the  melody  or  rhythm.  It  usually  falls  in  hexameter 
after  the  Arsis,  or  accented  syllable,  of  the  third  or  fourth  foot  in 
the  verse. 

NOTE.  —  In  modern  poetry,  even  in  modern  Greek,  quantity 
is  disregarded,  and  the  names  of  ancient  feet  are  applied  to  com- 
binations of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  Thus  fully  and 
foolisli  are  both  called  Trochees,  although  the  quantity  of  fully 
is  ~  ~  ;  so  impel  and  impale  are  both  called  Iambs.  It  is  difficult, 
therefore,  to  imitate  well  in  modern  verse  those  Latin  metres  which 
contain  two  or  three  long  syllables  in  succession,  because  accents 
seldom  come  naturally  on  successive  syllables. 

Owing  to  this  disregard  of  quantity  by  the  modern  ear,  the 
easiest  way  for  a  modern  reader  to  get  a  peculiar  melody  from 
Latin  verse  is  to  accent  (in  verse)  every  long  syllable,  and  no  short 
one.  Thus  as  prose  the  second  verse  of  "  Integer  Vitse  "  would 
be  accented  thus  :  — 

11  non  eget  Mauris  jaculis  neque  arcu  :  " 
while  in  poetry  it  is  to  be  accented  thus  :  — 

"  non  eget  Mauris  jaculis  nequ'  arcu," 
like  the  free  rendering  in  English :  — 

"needeth  not  b6w,  spear,  nor  a  rattling  quiver." 

80.     SCANNING. 

A  single  line  in  poetry  is  called  a  Verse. 

To  divide  the  verse  in  reading  into  its  appropriate  feet, 
according  to  the  rules  of  quantity  and  versification,  is  called 
Scanning,  —  that  is,  a  climbing,  or  advance  by  steps. 

A  verse  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  beginning  is  called  Ace- 
phalous ;  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  end  it  is  called  Catalectic. 


114  METRE.  §  81 

NOTE.  —  It  is  recommended  that  the  student  should  habitually 
scan  every  verse  he  meets  in  the  course  of  his  study.  In  reading 
or  recitation,  while  the  prose  accent  should  be  retained,  the  flow 
of  the  verse  may  be  in  some  degree  preserved  by  due  attention  to 
the  rules  of  quantity.  This  is  called  Metrical  Reading. 

In  scanning,  a  vowel  or  diphthong  at  the  end  of  a  word  — 
sometimes  even  at  the  end  of  a  verse  —  is  dropped,  when  the 
next  word  begins  with  a  vowel  or  with  h.  This  is  called 
Synalcepha,  or  Elision ;  or,  at  the  end  of  a  verse,  Synapheia. 

A  final  m,  with  the  preceding  vowel,  is  dropped  in  like 
manner.  This  is  called  Ecthlipsis. 

Hence  a  final  syllable  in  m  is  generally  reckoned  to  have  no 
quantity  of  its  own ;  its  vowel,  in  any  case,  being  either  elided  or 
else  made  long  by  position. 

Elision  is  sometimes  omitted  when  the  final  syllable  has  a 
special  emphasis,  or  is  succeeded  by  a  pause.  This  is  called 
Hiatus. 

A  final  syllable,  regularly  short,  is  sometimes  lengthened 
before  a  pause.  It  is  then  said  to  be  long  by  Caesura. 

The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  may  be  indifferently  long 
or  short. 

81.     METRE. 

Metre  is  a  regular  combination  of  feet  in  verse,  and  is 
named  from  its  most  frequent  or  ruling  foot,  as  Dactylic, 
Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapsestic. 

The  ruling  foot,  so  called,  always  consists  of  a  combination 
of  long  and  short  syllables,  and  is  therefore  never  a  pyrrich  or 
spondee. 

A  Verse  consists  of  a  given  number  of  feet  arranged  metri- 
cally. It  is  named  from  the  number  of  feet  it  contains,  as 
Hexameter,  Trimeter. 

A  Stanza  consists  of  a  definite  number  of  verses  ranged 
in  a  fixed  order.  It  is  often  called  from  the  name  of  some 
favorite  poet,  as  Sapphic,  Alcaic,  Horatian. 


§82  FORMS   OF   VERSE.  115 

82.     FORMS  OF  VERSE. 

The  most  common  forms  of  Latin  verse  are  these :  — 

I.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  called  also  Heroic  verse,  used 
in  narrative  and  pastoral  poetry.     It  consists  of  six  feet,  of 
which  the  last  is  always  a  Spondee,  the  fifth  generally  a  Dac- 
tyle,  and  the  rest  indifferently  spondees  or  dactyles. 

When  the  fifth  foot  is  a  spondee,  the  verse  is  called  Spon- 
daic. 

The  introductory  verses  of  the  ^Eneid,  divided  according  to 
the  foregoing  rules,  will  be  as  follows,  the  principal  Caesura  in 
each  verse  being  marked  by  double  lines  :  — 

arma  vijrumque  ca|no  [|  Tro|jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris 

Italijam  fajto  profujgus  ||  La|vmaque  |  venit 

litora,  |  mult'  111'  |  et  ter|ris  ||  ja|ctatus  et  |  alto 

vi  supe|rum  sae|vae  ||  memo|rem  Ju|nonis  6b  |  iram ; 

multa  quo|qu'  et  bel|lo  pas|sus  ||  dum  |  conderet  |  urbein, 

mfer|retque  de|os  Lati|6,  ||  genus  |  unde  La|tmum 

Alba|mque  pa|tres,  ||  at|qu'  altae  |  moema  |  Romae. 

The  Hexameter  verse  has  been  illustrated  in  English  thus :  — 
"  Strongly  it  |  bears  us  a|long,  in  |  swelling  and  |  limitless  |  billows, 
Nothing  be|fore  and  |  nothing  be  [hind,  but  the  I  sky  and  the  I  ocean." 

II.  Dactylic  Pentameter :  consisting  of  five  feet,  and  used 
alternately  with  the  Hexameter,  to  form  the  Elegiac  stanza. 
It  is  usually  divided,  in  scanning,  into  two  half  verses,  of  which 
the  latter  always  has  two  dactyles,  and  each  ends  in  a  single 
long  syllable,  or  half-foot  :  as, 

cum  subit  |  Illi|u3  tris|tissima  |  noctis  i|mago 

quae  rnlhi  |  rjupre|mum  ||  tempus  In     urbe  fu|it, 

cum  repejto  no|ctem  qua  |  tot  mini  |  cara  re|liqui, 
labitiir     ex  6cu|lis  ||  nunc  quoqug  |  gutta  me|is. 

jam  prope  |  lux  ade|rat,  qua  |  me  disjcedere  |  Caesar 
finibus  |  extre|mae  ||  jusserat  |  Aus6m|ae. 

Ov.  TRIST.  I.  EL.  3,  1-6. 

The  Elegiac  Stanza  has  been  illustrated  thus  :  — 

"  In  the  hex|ameter  j  rises  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column, 
In  the  pentlameter  |  still  ||  falling  in  |  melody  I  back." 


116  FORMS   OF   VERSE.  §82 

III.  Iambic  Trimeter  (senarius)  :  consisting  of  three  meas- 
ures, each  containing  a  double  Iambus.     In  the  first  half- 
measure  a  spondee  or  anapaest  is  often  substituted  for  the 
iambus ;  and  other  substitutions  are  occasionally  used.     This 
verse  is  used  chiefly  in  dramatic  dialogue. 

In  the  following  example,  it  alternates  with  the  Iambic  Dimeter, 
which  consists  of  two  similar  double  feet :  — 

beatus  iljle  qm  procul  |  negotus, 

ut  prisca  gens  |  mortalium, 
paterna  ru|ra  bubus  ex|ercet  suis, 

solutiis  6 1  mm  foenore,  .  .  . 
forumque  vi|tat  et  super|ba  civium 

p6tentio|rum  limina. 

HOR.  EPOD.  II.  1-8. 

IV.  Alcaic  Strophe,  or  Stanza  :  consisting  of  four  verses. 
The  first  two  verses  (greater  Alcaic)  have  for  their  base  each 
five  Iambuses,  for  the  first  and  third  of  which  a  spondee  is 
substituted,  and  for  the  fourth  an  anap^st ;  the  third  verse 
is  the  same,  but  with  one  complete  and  one  half  iambus  in 
the  last  two  feet ;  the  fourth  verse  consists  of  two  anapaests 
and  an  iambus,  preceded  and  followed  by  a  single  syllable,  or 
half-foot :  as, 

just'  ac  |  tena|cem  pro|positi  |  virum 

non  ci|vi'  ar|dor  pra|va  juben|tium 

non  vul|tus  m|stantis  |  tyran|ni 

meii|te  quatit  |  solida  |  ngqu'  au|ster. 

Id.  OD.  III.  3,  1-4. 

Or,  the  first  verse  may  be  divided  into  a  spondee,  bacchius,  and 
two  dactyles;  the  second  into  a  spondee,  bacchius,  and  two 
trochees;  and  the  third  into  two  dactyles  and  two  trochees. 

V.  Sapphic  Stanza:    consisting  of  three  Sapphic  verges 
and  one  Adonic. 

The  base  of  the  Sapphic  verse  is  five  Trochees,  for  the 
second  of  which  a  spondee,  and  for  the  third  a  dactyle,  is 
substituted. 


§82  FORMS   OP   VERSE.  117 

The  Adonic  verse  consists  simply  of  a  dactyle  and  spondee 
(or  Trochee)  :  as, 

jam  sa|tis  ter|ris  mvis  |  atque  |  dirae 
grandi|nis  mi|sit  pater  |  et  ru|bente 
dexte|ra  sa|cras  jacu|latus  |  arces 
terruit  |  urbem. 

Id.  CD.  I.  2,  1-4. 

Or,  the  Sapphic  verse  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  a  Trochee, 
Spondee,  Choriambus,  and  Bacchius. 

VI.  Lesser  Asclepiadic  :    consisting   of  a  spondee,  two 
choriambs,  and  an  iambus. 

Maecenas  atavis  |  edite  re|gibus 

O  et  |  praesidi'  et  |  dulce  decus  |  meum. 

Id.  OD.  I.  1.  1,  2. 

VII.  This  verse  is  often  joined  with  the  Glycoriic,  con- 
sisting of  a  spondee,  choriambus,  and  trochee,  making  the 
First  Asclepiadic  Stanza :  as, 

Romae  |  prlncipis  ur|bium 
digna|tur  sobbles  |  inter  ama|biles 

vatum  |  ponere  me  |  chores ; 
et  jam  |  dente  minus  |  mordeor  m|vido. 

Id.  OD.  IV.  3,  13-16. 

VIII.  Or,  three  Asclepiadics  with  one  Glyconic,  making 
the  Second  Asclepiadic  Stanza  :  as, 

audis  |  quo  strepitu  |  janiia  quo  |  nemiis 
inter  |  pulchra  satum  |  tecta  remu|giat 
ventis  |  et  positas  |  ut  glaciet  |  mves 
puro  I  numine  Julpiter. 

Id.  OD.  III.  10,  5-8. 

IX.  Or,  two  Asclepiadics  are  joined  with  one  Pherecratic 
(the  same  with  the  Glyconic,  lacking  one  syllable)  and  one 
Glyconic,  making  the  Third  Asclepiadic  stanza  :  as, 

hie  bel|lum  lacrymo|s'  hie  miseram  |  famem 
pestem|qu'  a  popuT  gt  |  priiicipe  Cae|sar'  in 

Persas  |  atque  Britaii|nos 
vestra  |  motus  aget  |  prece. 

Id.  OD.  III.  21,  13-16. 


118  FORMS   OP   VERSE.  §82 

The  above  forms  include  upwards  of  a  hundred  of  the 
Odes  of  Horace.  In  the  eighteen  not  included,  he  employs 
twelve  different  kinds  of  stanzas,  most  of  which  are  combi- 
nations of  the  verses  already  given.  They  may  be  briefly 
indicated  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Choriambic  Pentameter  (Greater  Asclepiadic)  : 

tu  ne  |  quaesieris  |  scire  nefas  |  quern  mini  quern  |  tibi. 

(OD.  I.  11,  18;  IV.  10.) 

2.  Hexameter,  followed  by  the  last  four  feet  of  an  hexame- 
ter.— (OD.  I.  7,  28;  EPOD.  12.) 

3.  Hexameter,  followed  by  Iambic  Dimeter.  — EPOD.  14,  15. 

4.  Trimeter  Iambic  alone.  —  EPOD.  17. 

5.  Choriambic  Dimeter  and  Tetrameter :  as, 

Lydia  die  |  per  omnes 
te  decs  ojro  Sybarm  |  cur  prbperas  |  amando.  —  OD.  I.  8. 

6.  Hexameter,  followed  by  Iambic  Trimeter.  — EPOD.  16. 

7.  Verse  of  four  Lesser  Ionics.  — OD.  III.  12. 

8.  Hexameter  with  Dactylic  Penthemim  (five  half-feet)  : 

diffu|gere  ni|ves  rede  [tint  jam  |  gramma  |  campis 
arbori|busque  co|mae.  —  OD.  IV.  7. 

9.  Iambic  Trimeter ;  Dactylic  Penthemim ;  Iambic  Dimeter. — 
EPOD.  11. 

10.  Hexameter;  Iambic  Dimeter ;  Dactylic  Penthemim. — EP.  13. 

11.  Archilochian  Heptameter ;  Iambic  Trimeter  catalectic :  as, 

solvitiir  |  acris  hi | ems  gra|ta  vice  |  veris  |  it  fa|voni 
trahunt|que  sicjcas  ma|chinae  |  cari|nas.  —  OD.  I.  4. 

12.  Iambic  Dimeter  and  Trimeter,  each  imperfect:  as, 

non  |  ebur  |  nequ'  au|reum 
mea  |  rem  det  in  |  domo  |  lacu|nar.  — OD.  II.  18. 

In  dramatic  dialogue,  the  Trochaic  Tetrameter  catalectic,  or 
Septenarius,  is  occasionally  used,  consisting  regularly  of  fifteen 
syllables,  — the  same  with  the  8's  and  7's  of  the  common  ballad 
measure,  — usually  with  various  irregularities  :  as, 

ad  t'advdnio  spdm  saliitem  consili'  aiixili'  expetens. 

TER.  ANDR.  II.  1,  18. 


§83  RECKONING    OF    TIME   AND    MONEY.  119 

83.      RECKONING   OF   TIME.     (See  §  56,  i.  4.) 

(From  Allen's  Classical  Hand-Book.) 

Roman  Chronology  was  reckoned  from  the  building  of  the 
city,  the  date  of  which  was  assigned  by  Varro  to  B.C.  753. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  reduce  Roman  dates  to  those  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  year  of  the  city  is  to  be  subtracted  from 
754  ;  e.g.  A.U.C.  708  =  B.C.  46. 

The  first  day  of  each  month  was  called  Kalendae,  from 
calare,  to  call ;  that  being  the  day  on  which  the  priests  pub- 
licly announced  the  new  moon  in  the  Comitia  Calata,  which 
they  did,  originally,  after  actual  observation.  Sixteen  days 
before  this,  that  is,  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  March,  May,  July, 
and  October,  but  the  thirteenth  of  the  other  months,  came  the 
Idus,  or  day  of  the  full  moon ;  eight  days  before  the  Ides 
were  the  Nonae.  The  month  was  thus  divided  into  three 
weeks  of  eight  days,  and  one  of  five  or  seven.  The  days 
were  reckoned  backward  from  these  points  ;  but  as  it  was  the 
custom  of  the  Romans  always  to  include  the  point  of  departure 
in  such  calculations,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  find  the  day 
of  the  month,  to  take  this  into  account.  Thus,  the  day  before 
the  Kalends,  Ides,  &c.,  is  called  Pridie  Kalendas,  &c. ;  the 
day  before  this,  ante  diem  (a.  d.)  tertium  Kalendas,  &c. 
Therefore,  with  the  Kalends,  two  must  be  added  to  the  number 
of  days  of  the  preceding  month  ;  with  the  Nones  and  Ides,  one 
must  be  added  to  the  day  of  the  month  on  which  they  occur  ;  and 
the  day  of  the  date  must  be  taken  from  the  number  thus  obtained. 
E.  g.  the  sixth  day  before  the  Kalends  of  November  :  31  (the 
number  of  days  of  October)  +  2  =  33  ;  33  —  6  =  27.  The 
date  will  be  Oct.  27.  —  The  third  day  before  the  Ides  of 
March  :  15 +  1  =  16;  16—3  =  13.  March  13. 

84.     RECKONING  OF  MONEY.     (See  §  14.) 

The  money  of  the  Romans  was  in  early  times  wholly 
copper,  the  unit  being  the  As.  This  was  nominally  a  pound, 


120  ROMAN   PR^ENOMENS.  §85 

but  actually  somewhat  less,  in  weight,  and  was  divided  into 
twelve  Unciae.  In  the  3d  cent.  B.C.  the  as  was  reduced  by 
degrees  to  one-twelfth  of  its  original  value.  At  the  same 
time  silver  coins  were  introduced ;  the  Denarius  =  10  asses, 
and  the  Sestertius,  or  Sesterce  (semis  tertius,  represented 
by  IIS,  or  HS,  =  duo  et  semis)  =  2^  asses.  The  sestertius, 
being  probably  introduced  at  a  time  when  it  was  equal  in 
value  to  the  original  as,  came  to  be  used  as  the  unit  (hence 
nummus  was  used  as  equivalent  to  sestertius) ;  afterwards, 
by  the  reductions  in  the  standard,  four  asses  became  equal  to 
a  sesterce.  Gold  was  introduced  later,  the  aureus  being 
equal  to  one  hundred  sesterces.  —  Sertertium  (M.)  =  1000 
sestertii  was  used  as  an  expression  of  value,  not  as  a  coin. 

In  the  statement  of  sums  of  money  in  cipher,  a  line  above 
the  number  indicated  thousands ;  lines  at  the  sides  also, 
hundred-thousands.  Thus  HS.  DC.  =  600  sestertii.  HS. 
DC.  =  600,000  sestertii,  or  600  sestertia.  HS.  JDC]  =  60,- 
000,000  sestertii.  With  the  numeral  adverb,  hundred-thou- 
sands are  also  understood :  as,  decies,  decies  HS.,  or  decies 
sestertium,  that  is,  decies  centena  millia  sestertium,  or  ten 
times  a  hundred  sestertia  =  1,000,000  sestertii. 

85.     ROMAN  PR^ENOMENS, 

WITH  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS.      (See  §15.) 

A.  Aulus.  Mam.  Mamercus. 

App.  Appius.  N.  Numerius. 

C.  Caius.  P.  Publius. 
Cn.  Cneius.  Q.  Quintus. 

D.  Deciraus.  Ser.  Servius. 
K.  Kaeso.  Sex.  Sextus. 
L.  Lucius.  Sp.  Spurius. 
M.  Marcus.  T.  Titus. 
M'.  Manius.  Ti.  Tiberius. 


INDEX. 


a  or  ab,  47  ;  in  composition,  2 ; 
after  passive  verbs,  77. 

abesse,  30. 

Ablative,  5  ;  plural  ending,  id. ; 
in  abus,  6  ;  i.  8  ;  SYNTAX,  69  : 
of  cause,  etc.,  id. ;  of  manner, 
etc.,  70;  after  special  verbs 
and  adjectives,  id. ;  after 
comparatives,  71 ;  of  separa- 
tion, id. ;  after  opus  and 
usus,  id. ;  of  origin,  72 ;  of 
price,  id. ;  absolute,  id. ;  of 
time,  73 ;  of  distance,  id. ; 
of  place,  74 ;  of  direction, 
75 ;  after  prepositions,  46, 

.  75;  of  agent  (with  ab),  77, 
of  gerunds,  101. 

ac.  —  See  atque. 

Accent,  3 ;  of  ingeni,  Vergili, 
etc.,  7;  of  benefacis,  etc.,  42. 

Accusative,  4  ;  ending,  5  ;  im,  8. 
SYNTAX,  66 ;  after  neuter 
verbs,  67 ;  two  accusatives, 
id.;  adverbial  (synecdoche), 
68 ;  in  exclamations,  id. ;  as 
subject  of  infinitive,  id.  92 ; 
of  time,  73 ;  of  space,  id. ; 
of  distance,  id. ;  of  place,  74  ; 
of  gerunds,  100. 

ad,  47 ;  in  composition,  2,  65. 
adesse,  30. 

Adjectives,  14 ;  comparison, 
15,  56 ;  agreement,  54 ;  as 
nouns,  55;  equivalent  to  gen., 
56  ;  denoting  a  part,  id. ;  fol- 
lowed by  gen.,  61 ;  by  dat.  63. 

Adverbs,  44;  numeral,  19; 
comparison,  44  ;  partitive,  61. 

aer,  ace.  aera,  10. 


Agreement,  rules  of,  53. 

aio,  43. 

-al  and  -ar,  neuter  endings,  8. 

Alcaic  strophe,  116. 

alius,  use,  56;  gen.,  15. 

Alphabet,  1. 

alter,  as  correl.,  23;  gen.,  15. 

ambo,  declension,  19. 

amplius,  peculiar  use,  71. 

an  (amion),  98. 

ante,  in  expression  of  time,  73  ; 

in  the  day  of  the  month,  76 ; 

with  quam,  77. 
Antecedent,  57. 
Antepenult,  3. 
antequam,  with     subjunctive, 

86. 

apage,  43. 
Apodosis,   81 ;    in  oratio   ob- 

liqua,  92. 
Apposition,  53 ;   with   locative 

case,  54. 
aptus,  followed  by  subjunctive, 

90. 

Arrangement,  103. 
Arsis,  113. 

as  (Roman  coin),  120. 
Asclepiadic  verse,  117. 
at,  30 ;  compared  with  verum, 

etc.,  48. 
atque  (ac) ,  compared  with  et, 

etc.,  47 ;    in  a  relative  use, 

23,  50. 
audeo,  40. 

aut,  compared  with  vel,  etc.,  48. 
Autem,  compared  with  at,  etc., 

48 ;   position,  50. 
Authority  in  Prosody,  105. 
ave,  43. 


122 


INDEX. 


belli,  as  a  locative,  74. 

bos,  declension,  11. 

c  for  k  and  q,  1 ;  pronuncia- 
tion, 2. 

Csesura,  113. 

Cardinal  numbers,  18. 

Cases,  4. 

cave,  in  prohibitions,  80. 

causa,  with  gen.  (motive),  69  ; 
of  gerunds,  101. 

cedo  (defective),  43. 

celo,  with  two  accusatives,  67. 

certe  and  certo,  compared, 
45. 

circum,  compounds  of,  with 
accusative,  07. 

clam,  as  preposition,  76. 

coepi,  43. 

Collective  nouns,  with  plural 
verbs,  59. 

Comparative,  of  adjectives,  15  ; 
its  use,  17  ;  of  adverbs,  44 ; 
followed  by  ablative,  71. 

Comparison,  3 ;  of  adjectives, 
15 ;  irregular,  16 ;  of  ad- 
verbs, 44;  between  adjec- 
tives, 17,  56. 

Compound  nouns,  52. 

con  (cum),  in  composition,  2. 

Conditional  sentences,  81,  92. 

Conjugation,  3 ;  rules  of,  38 ; 
four  conjugations,  32. 

Conjunctions,  47. 

Consonants,  1. 

Copula,  53. 

Correlatives,  23. 

constructio  ad  sensum,  55. 

cotidie  for  quotitie,  1. 

Crime,  62. 

cum,  prep.,  appended  to  pro- 
nouns, 21,  22;  to  express 
manner,  &c.,  76. 

cum  (quum)  conj.,  49  ;  in  the 
sense  of  although,  85;  when, 
86 ;  because,  87. 

Dactylic  measure,  115. 

Dative  case,  4 ;  ending,  5 ;  in 
abus,  6;  SYNTAX,  63;  of 
advantage,  64;  ethic,  id. ;  of 
indirect  object,  id. ;  after  cer- 


tain verbs,  id. ;  after  nouns, 
65 ;  after  prepositions  in 
composition,  id. ;  of  posses- 
sion, 66 ;  of  end,  67  ;  after 
the  gerundive,  id. ;  of  gerunds, 
101. 

de,  compared  with  ab  and  ex, 
47  ;  in  denoting  crime,  62. 

debui,  with  present  infinitive, 
79. 

Declension,  3  ;  five  declensions, 
5  ;  first,  6  ;  second,  7  ;  third, 
8;  fourth,  11;  fifth,  12;  ir- 
regular, 12 ;  of  adjectives, 
14  ;  third  declension,  15  ;  of 
gerund,  27. 

Definitions  in  Syntax,  53. 

deinde,  following  primum,  46. 

Demonstratives,  21 ;  correla- 
tives, 23. 

Dentals,  1,  10. 

Deponent  verbs,  40. 

Desideratives,  41. 

deus,  declined,  7. 

dico,  imperative  die,  38. 

dies,  masc.,  12. 

dignus,  followed  by  ablative, 
70  ;  by  subjunctive,  90. 

Diminutives,  50. 

Diphthongs,  1 ;  quantity,  2. 

Direction  and  distance,  73. 

Distributive  numerals,  19. 

divum  for  deorum,  7. 

domi,  12  ;  locative,  79. 

domus,  declension,  12. 

donee,  with  subjunctive,  86. 

duco,  imperative  due,  38. 

dum,  in  the  sense  of  while,  79, 
86  ;  provided,  85  ;  until,  86. 

dummodo,    with    sub.,  85. 

duo,  declined,  19. 

dumtaxat,  30* 

Ecthlipsis,  114. 

edo,  eat,  42. 

ecus  for  equus,  1. 

Elegiac  verse,  115. 

Elision,  114. 

Endings,  personal,  of  verbs,  30. 

enim,  compared  with  nam,  48 ; 
position,  50. 


INDEX. 


123 


eo,  42. 

Epicenes,  4. 

-er,  adj.  ending,  3d  decl.,  15. 

ergo,  compared  with  igitur, 
etc.,  49. 

es  final,  pronunciation,  2. 

esse,  paradigm,  30. 

est,  with  preceding  word,  2. 

et,  compared  with  que,  etc.,  47  ; 
et  .  .  .  et,  50. 

eteuim,  48  ;  position,  50. 

etiam,  compared  with  quoque, 
45. 

etsi,  compared  with  quamvis, 
etc.,  85. 

ETYMOLOGY,  1-52. 

ex,  compared  with  ab  and  de, 
47 ;  in  composition,  2 ;  for 
partitive  genitive,  61. 

Exclamations,  68. 

facio,  42  ;  compounds,  id. ;  im- 
perative fac,  38. 

fari,  43. 

Feet  in  Prosody,  111. 

fel  (genitive  fellis),  10. 

fero,  42  ;  imperative,  fer,  38. 

fido,  40. 

Final  syllables,  rules  of  quanti- 
ty in,  106. 

f  10,  42  ;  quantity,  106. 

fore  ut,  with  subjunctive,  94. 

Formation  of  words,  50. 

Frequentatives,  41. 

fretus,  followed  by  Abl.,  70. 

fruor,  governing  ablative,  70. 

fungor,  governing  ablative,  70. 

Future  tenses,  29  ;  infinitive  in 
oratio  obliqua,  94. 

g,  pronunciation,  2. 

gaudeo,  40. 

Gender,  4;  3d  decl.,  11. 

General  truths,  79,  83. 

Genitive  case,  4  ;  ending,  5  ;  in 
ai  and  as,  6  ;  in  ium  (plu- 
ral), in  vowel  stems,  8;  id. 
in  consonant  stems,  11;  in 
ius,  7,  15  ;  syntax,  59 ;  sub- 
jective, id.;  of  quality,  60; 
as  appositive,  id. ;  after  ad- 
jectives, id.,  61 ;  partitive, 


60;  objective,  61 ;  after  verbs, 
62  ;  of  measure,  73  ;  of  ger- 
unds, 100. 

Gerunds,  27 ;  syntax,  99,  100. 

Gerundives,  26,  44 ;  syntax,  99. 

Glyconic  verse,  117. 

Gothic  languages,  29. 

Government,  53  ;  rules,  59. 

gratia,  with  gen.  (motive),  69. 

Greek  nouns,  first  decl.,  6; 
second  decl.,  7;  third  decl.,  8. 

Greek  words  in  Prosody,  105. 

Hexameter  verse,  115. 

Hiatus,  114. 

hie,  compared  with  is,  etc.,  21. 

Horace,  odes  of,  118. 

humi,  locative,  74. 

Iambic  verse,  116. 

Ictus,  113. 

idcirco,  compared  with  itaque, 
etc.,  49. 

I'dem,  eadem,  idem,  22. 

idoiieus,  followed  by  subjunc- 
tive, 90. 

id  quod,  referring  to  a  clause, 
58. 

igitur,  compared  with  idcirco, 
etc.,  49;  position,  50. 

ille,  compared  with  hie,  etc., 
21. 

Imperative,  25  ;  future,  26,  80  ; 
passive  (formed),  38 ;  syn- 
tax, 80;  in  oratio  obliqua, 
93. 

Imperfect  tense,  28  ;  compared 
with  perfect,  29. 

Imperfect  subjunctive,  forma- 
tion, 38 ;  in  conditional  sen- 
tences, 82 ;  potential,  83. 

Impersonals,  with  dative,  65 ; 
of  verbs  of  saying,  &c.,  94. 

in,  compared  with  ad,  47  ;  syn- 
tax, 46,  75 ;  in  composition, 
2. 
Inceptive  or  inchoative  verbs, 

41. 

Increment,  11  ;  quantity,  108. 
Indeclinable  nouns,  12  ;  neut.  4. 
Indefinite   pronouns,   23;    cor- 
relatives, id. 


124 


INDEX. 


Indicative,  24 ;  syntax,  80 ;  in 
conditional  sentences,  82;  for 
subjunctive,  83  ;  after  quam- 
quam,  etc.,  85;  with  cum 
temporal,  86 ;  after  dum, 
ivhile,  etc.,  id.  ;  with  cum  in 
sense  of  quod,  87  ;  with  quod 
in  substantive  clauses,  97. 

indignus,  followed  by  ablative, 
70  ;  by  subjunctive,  90. 

Infinitive,  26  ;  syntax,  81 ;  his- 
torical, 59  ;  time  of  tenses, 
79  ;  subject  or  object  of  verb, 
81;  expressing  purpose,  id ; 
with  subject  accusative,  68, 
92;  after  verbs  of  wishing, 
95  ;  after  impersonal  verbs, 
97 ;  as  noun,  56,  81,  100. 

Inflection,  3. 

inquam,  43. 

Instrument  and  agent,  69,  77. 

Intensive  verbs,  41. 

interest,  constructions,  63. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  22 ; 
correlatives,  23 ;  particles, 
98. 

ipse,  22. 

Irregularities,  in  nouns,  11,  12  ; 
in  comparison,  16  ;  in  verbs, 
38. 

is,  compared  with  hie,  etc.,  22. 

iste,  compared  with  is,  etc.,  22. 

itaque,  compared  with  ergo, 
etc.,  49. 

iter,  declension,  11. 

ius,  gen.  7,  17 ;  quantity,  108. 

jam,  compared  with  iiuiic,  45. 

jecur,  declension,  11. 

jiibeo,  with  ace.  and  inf.,  96. 

Juppiter,  declension,  11. 

Labials,  1. 

lac  (genitive,  lactis),  10. 

lamp  as,  declension,  11. 

licet,  85. 

Liquids,  1. 

Locative  case,  5 ;  second  decl., 
7;  in  e,  11,  74  ;  syntax,  74; 
with  noun  in  appos.,  54. 

ma^is,  maxime,  16. 

malo,  41. 


Measure,  70,  73. 

mei,  objective  genitive,  20. 

mel  (genitive,  mellis),  10. 

memini,  43  ;  with  pres.  inf.,  79. 

Metre,  114. 

militiae,  as  a  locative,  74. 

mille,  19. 

minus,  peculiar  use,  71. 

mmoris,  gen.  of  price,  72. 

misereor,  miseresco  and  mi- 
seret,  with  gen.,  62. 

modo,  with  subjunctive,  85. 

Money,  reckoning  of,  13,  119. 

Months,  days  of,  76,  119. 

Moods,  24 ;   syntax,  80. 

Mute  consonants,  1 ;  stems, 
third  declension,  9. 

nam,  compared  with  enim,  48. 

Names,  proper,  13,  120. 

namque,  48  ;  position,  50. 

ne,  with  imperative,  25,  80 ;  in 
final  clauses,  88  ;  after  verbs 
of  fearing,  88  ;  of  hindering, 
89  ;  omitted,  id. 

-lie,  in  questions,  98. 

nee.  —  See  iieque. 

iiecne,  98. 

neque  (iiec),  47,  50. 

iiequeo,  42. 

iiescio  an ;  nescio  quis,  92. 

neuter,  gen.,  15. 

Neuter  Adjectives,  55,  60,  68. 

Neuter  endings,  5. 

Neuter  part,  with  opus,  71. 

Neuter  verbs,  used  imperson- 
ally, 44;  governing  ace.,  66. 

neve,  25. 

nisi,  81. 

noli,  in  prohibitions,  80. 

iiolo,  41. 

Nominative  case,  4 ;  for  voca- 
tive, 68;  governing  ace.,  66. 

nonne,  98. 

nostri  and  nostrum,  uses  com- 
pared, 20. 

Nouns,  6 ;  irregular,  12 ;  de- 
fective, id. ;  indeclinable,  id. ; 
variable,  13. 

nullus,  genitive,  15. 

num,  98. 


INDEX. 


125 


Numerals,  18. 

nunc,  compared  with  jam,  45. 

o  for  u,  2. 

ob,  expressing  motive,  69. 

Object,  53. 

Object  clauses,  96. 

Oblique  cases,  5. 

odi,  43. 

opera,  with  gen.  (instrument), 
69. 

oportuit,  with  pres.  inf.,  79. 

opus,  followed  by  abl.,  71. 

oratio  obliqua,  91. 

Ordinal  numbers,  18. 

os,  final,  pronunciation,  2 ;  in 
second  declension,  7. 

palam,  as  preposition,  76. 

J/alatals,  1 ;  stems,  3d  decl.,  10. 

Participles,  26 ;  examples  of 
use,  27  ;  syntax,  99  ;  abl.  ab- 
solute, 72. 

Particles,  3  ;  interrogative,  98. 

Passive  voice,  24 ;  used  reflec- 
tively, id. ;  formation,  38 ; 
impersonally  of  neuter  verbs, 
44,  65. 

Patronymics,  50. 

pelagus,  neuter,  7. 

Pentameter,  115. 

Penalty,  62. 

Penult,  3 ;  quantity  of,  108. 

per,  with  living  beings  (instru- 
ment), 69. 

Perfect  tense,  28 ;  compared 
with  imperfect,  29 ;  indefinite 
used  for  definite,  79. 

Perfect  subjunctive,  use,  78. 

Periphrastic  forms,  44. 

Period,  104. 

Personal  pronouns,  20. 

pertaesum  est,  with  gen.,  62. 

peto,  used  with  preposition,  67. 

Plierecratic  verse,  117. 

piget,  with  genitive,  62. 

Place,  74. 

PI  -.perfect  subjunctive,  formed, 
38  ;  in  conditional  sentences, 
83  ;  in  oratio  obliqua,  93. 

pluris,  genitive  of  price,  72. 

plus,  peculiar  use,  71. 


poenitet,  with  genitive,  62. 

Position,  106. 

posse,  30. 

Possessive  adj.  pronouns,  21 ; 
as  noun,  55  ;  for  gen.  21,  56  ; 
with  domi,  &c.,  74. 

post,  in  expressions  of  time,  73  ; 
with  quam,  77. 

posteaquam  (pcstquam),  fol- 
lowed by  perfect  indicative, 
28,  78,  86. 

postridie,  with  gen.,  63;  with 
ace.,  76. 

postulo,  used  with  prepos..  67. 

Potential  subjunctive,  84. 

potior,  with  abl.,  70;  with  gen., 
63. 

potui,  with  pres.  inf.,  79. 

praesens,  30. 

praesertim,  strengthening  the 
relative,  87. 

Predicate,  53. 

Prepositions,  46  ;  syntax,  75  ; 
governing  dative  in  com- 
pounds, 65 ;  governing  ace. 
in  compounds,  67. 

Present  subjunctive,  in  con- 
ditional sentences,  82 ;  in 
wishes,  95. 

Present  tense,  28 ;  historical, 
id.,  78  ;  with  dum,  79. 

pridie,  with  gen.,  63 ;  with  ace., 
76. 

primum  and  primo,  comp.,  46. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  38. 

prius,  with  quam,  77. 

priusquam,    with    subj.,  86. 

pro,  in  defence  of,  64. 

prodesse,  30. 

Prohibitions,  80. 

Pronouns,  20,  23 ;  (personal) 
omitted  with  verbs,  59. 

Pronunciation,  2. 

propior,  propius,  used  like 
prepositions,  76. 

propter,  expressing  motive,  69. 

PROSODY,  105-118. 

protasis,  81. 

proximus  and  proxime,  used 
like  prepositions,  76. 


126 


INDEX. 


pudet,  with  gen.,  62. 

quae  res,  referring  to  a  clause, 
58. 

quaero,  with  preposition,  67. 

quam,  with  superlatives,  17 ; 
after  comparatives,  id. 

quamquam,  compared  with 
etsi,  etc.,  85. 

quamvis,  with  subjunctive,  85. 

quando,  49  ;  with  subjunctive, 
87. 

quanti,  as  gen.  of  price,  72. 

Quantity,  2  ;  in  Prosody,  105. 

quasi,  with  subjunctive,  85. 

-que,  47  ;  quantity,  106. 

queo,  42. 

Questions,  98  ;  indirect,  25,  91 ; 
in  oratio  obliqua,  94 ;  doubt- 
ful, 84. 

quia,  49  ;  with  subjunctive,  87. 
i  quin,  with  subjunctive,  89;  non 
quin,  87. 

quippe,  strengthening  relative, 
87. 

quo,  with  subjunctive,  88;  lion 
quo,  87. 

quoad, -with  subjunctive,  86. 

quod,  49 ;  with  subjunctive, 
87 ;  in  substantive  clauses, 
97. 

quominus,  with  subjunctive, 
90. 

quoiiiam,  49 ;  with  subjunc- 
tive, 87. 

quoque,  compared  with  etiam, 
45. 

quum.  —  See  cum. 

Reduplication,  33;  quantity, 
109. 

refert,  construction,  63. 

Reflective  pronouns,  20 ;  verbs, 
24,^68. 

Relative  pronouns,  22 ;  indefi- 
nite, 23;  in  conditional  sen- 
tences, 81;  correlatives,  23; 
SYNTAX,  57;  for  the  demon- 
strative, 58 ;  implying  cause, 
87  ;  purpose,  88  ;  result,  89  ; 
after  dignus,  etc.,  90;  after 
general  expressions,  id.;  after 


quam,  id. ;  with  subjunctive, 
96. 

Rhythm,  105. 

Root,  3. 

rure  and  ruri,  74. 

salve,  43. 

Sapphic  verse  and  strophe,  116. 

Scanning,  113. 

scin  for  scisne,  2. 

sed,  compared  with  at,  etc.,  48. 

Senarius  (iambic),  116. 

Septenarius  (trochaic),  118. 

seu.  —  See  sive. 

si,  81. 

sis  for  si  vis,  41. 

sive,  compared  with  aut,  etc., 
48. 

sodes  for  si  audes,  40. 

soleo,  40. 

solus,  gen.,  15;  with  subjunc- 
tive, 90. 

Space,  measure  of,  73. 

Stanza  or  strophe,  114. 

Stem,  3;  of  verbs,  32,  39,  40; 

syllables,  quantity  of,  109. 

sub,  75;  in  composition,  2. 

Subject,  53  ;  clauses,  96. 

Subjunctive  mood,  24;  exam- 
ples of  use,  25 ;  general  rules, 
80 ;  conditional  sentences, 
82  ;  implied  conditions,  84 ; 
after  particles,  85 ;  temporal 
clauses,  86 ;  cause,  87  ;  pur- 
pose, 88 ;  result,  89  ;  inter- 
mediate clauses,  90 ;  indirect 
questions,  91 ;  oratio  ob- 
liqua, 93  ;  wishes,  95  ;  rela- 
tive clauses,  96. 

Substantive  verb,  53 ;  clauses, 
96. 

subter,  76. 

sui,  use  of,  20. 

siipellex,  declension,  11. 

super,  75  ;  superlative  of  adjec- 
tives, 15;  use,  17;  with 
quam,  id.  ;  denoting  a  part, 
56. 

Supines,  28;  syntax,  101. 

Syllables,  division,  2;  contrac- 
tion, 2. 


INDEX. 


127 


Synaloepha,  114. 

Synapheia,  114. 

Syncopation,  38. 

Synecdoche,  68. 

Synesis,  55. 

SYNTAX,  53-104. 

taedet,  with  gen., 62. 

tamen,  position,  50. 

tamquam,  with  subjunctive,  85. 

tanti,  as  gen.  of  price,  72. 

Tasting,  etc.,  verbs  of,  67. 

Tenses,  28;  primary  and  second- 
ary, 29,  77;  formation,  29; 
sequence,  77;  of  completed 
action,  29,  78. 

teiius,  76. 

Tetrameter,  115. 

Thesis,  113. 

Time,  73  ;  adverbs  of,  76  ;  rela- 
tions of,  86  ;  Roman  reckon- 
ing of,  lip. 

totus,  gen.,  15. 

trans,  compounds  of,  with  two 
accusatives,  67. 

tres,  declined,  19. 

Trimeter,  116. 

tui,  use  of,  20. 

turn  and  tune,  compared,  45. 

u,  1. 

iibi,  with  perfect  indicative,  28, 
78,  86. 

iinus,  gen.,  15;  followed  by 
subjunctive,  90. 

usus,  followed  by  abl.,  71. 

ut,  30 ;  in  the  sense  of  although, 
85 ;  strengthening  relative, 
87  ;  purpose,  88 ;  after  verbs 
of  fear,  id. ;  omitted,  id. ; 


meaning  how  and  when,  id. ; 
result,  89 ;  in  substantive 
clauses,  97,  98. 

ut  ne,  88. 

uter,  gen.,  15. 

utor,  governing  abl.,  71. 

utpote,  strengthening  relative, 
87. 

utrum,  98. 

v,  1. 

vel  (ve),  compared  with  sive, 
etc.,  48. 

velim  and  vellem,  compared, 
84. 

veiiiti,  with  subjunctive,  85. 

Verbs,  24;  paradigms,  34;  de- 
ponent, 40 ;  derivative,  41 ; 
irregular,  id. ;  defective,  43  ; 
impersonal,  id. ;  agreement, 
58 ;  syntax,  77  ;  of  hinder- 
ing, &c.,  89. 

vero,  position,  50. 

Verse,  113 ;  forms  of,  115. 

verum,  compared  with  sed, 
etc.,  48. 

vescor,  governing  abl.,  70. 

vestrum  and  vestri  compared, 
20. 

vm'  for  visne,  2. 

virus,  neuter,  7. 

vis,  declension,  8. 

Vocative,  5  ;  form,  5 ;  2d  deel., 
7 ;  in  i,  8  ;  syntax,  68. 

Voices,  24. 

volo,  41. 

Vowels,  1 ;  varied,  2 ;  quantity, 
2  ;  stem  of  3d  decl.,  8. 

vulgus,  neuter,  7. 


Cambridge :  Press  of  John  Wilson  &  Son. 


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